1
Q
Phrenology
A
- bumps on skull caused by development, each bump represents a quality which tells us about personality
- wrong because inside of skull is smooth
- led researchers to study localization of function
- Broca studied this
2
Q
Biological perspective summary
A
- development is determined primarily by biological forces
- contains maturational theory and ethological theory
- Important contributors: Charles Darwin, G. Stanley Hall, Ernst Haeckel, Arnold Gesell, Konrad Lorenz
3
Q
Maturational theory
A
- part of biological perspective
- development reflects the natural unfolding of a pre-arranged biological plan
- experience matters little in development
4
Q
Ethological theory
A
- part of biological perspective
- many behaviors are adaptive because they have survival value
- we inherit many adaptive behaviors BUT experience is also important for development
5
Q
William James
A
- functionalism; causal relationships between internal states and external behaviors
- “father” of psychology as an academic discipline
6
Q
Charles Darwin
A
- understanding the dev. of individuals within a species can help understand how a species developed
- traits are inherited via natural selection
- you can trace dev. of human child by looking at dev. of species in general (adult chimpanzees have features of human child)
- kept a diary of his own child’s behavior
7
Q
G. Stanley Hall
A
- influenced by Darwin and Ernst Haeckel
- human dev. recapitulates dev. of the species (we go from a primitive to a sophisticated form)
8
Q
Ernst Haeckel
A
- “ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny”
- children are like primitive humans, adult fish is like embryological human
- theory disproved
9
Q
Ontogeny
A
development of organism from embryonic stages
10
Q
Phylogeny
A
evolution of species as a whole
11
Q
Arnold Gesell
A
- maturational theory
- child development occurs according to a predetermined, naturally unfolding plan of growth
- if you try to teach something to a child who is not developmentally ready to learn it you can damage them
- determined norms to which children could be compared
12
Q
Konrad Lorenz
A
- Ethology (adaptive/survival value of behavior and its evolutionary history)
- Critical period: time during which the child is ready and able to learn something (now called sensitive period)
- Imprinting: forming emotional bond between child and first moving object, usually the mother
13
Q
Critical period
A
time during which the child is ready and able to learn something (now called sensitive period)
14
Q
Imprinting
A
Imprinting: forming emotional bond between child and first moving object, usually the mother
15
Q
Psychodynamic Perspective summary
A
- development is determined by how a child resolves conflict at different ages
- Major theories: Freud’s psychosexual stages and Erikson’s psychosocial theory
16
Q
Psychoanalysis
A
- Freud’s theory
- proposed that development is largely determined by how well people resolve unconscious conflicts that arise during development
17
Q
Freud’s 3 components of personality
A
Id: - primitive instincts and drives - unconscious Ego: - rational/practical; reality - develops in infancy - tries to meet the id’s desires with realistic and socially acceptable objects and actions - conscious Superego: - morality/conscience - develops from ages 3-6 through interactions w caregivers
18
Q
Freud’s psychosexual theory
A
- humans are instinctively motivated from birth to experience physical pleasure
- as children grow, libido shifts to different parts of the body, termed “erogenous zones.”
- development proceeds best when children’s needs at each
stage are met but not exceeded - if needs not met, as adult they will be fixated on a certain stage
19
Q
Oral Stage
A
- first stage of Freud’s psychosexual theory
- birth-1 year
- fixations: thumb sucking, fingernail biting, overeating, smoking
20
Q
Anal stage
A
- second stage in Freud’s psychosexual stages
- 1-3 years
- holding and releasing urine and feces
- fixations: orderliness, obsessiveness, rigidity
21
Q
Phallic stage
A
- third stage of Freud’s psychosexual theory
- 3-6 years
- Oedipus conflict in boys and Electra conflict in girls; child feels sexual desire for other-sex parent
- Fixations: vanity, exhibitionism, pride
22
Q
Latency stage
A
- fourth stage of Freud’s psychosexual theory
- 6-11 years
- sexual instincts die down, superego develops further
- child acquires new social values from adults and same-sex peers
23
Q
Genital stage
A
- fifth and final stage of Freud’s psychosexual theory
- adolescence but extends to adulthood
- sexual impulses reappear
24
Q
Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory
A
- each stage of development is defined by a unique challenge
- Erikson studied with Freud’s daughter Anna
- psychodynamic bc it is based on Freudian theory
25
Basic trust vs. mistrust
- first stage of Erickson's psychosocial theory
- corresponds to Freud's oral stage
- birth-1 year
- task: develop sense of world as safe/a good place
26
Autonomy vs. shame and doubt
- second stage of Erickson's psychosocial theory
- corresponds to Freud's anal stage
- 1-3 years
- task: developing independence/decision making
27
Initiative vs. guilt
- third of Erickson's psychosocial theory
- corresponds to Freud's phallic stage
- 3-6 years
- task: develop willingness to try new things and to handle failure
28
Industry vs. inferiority
- fourth stage of Erickson's psychosocial theory
- corresponds to Freud's latency stage
- 6-11 years
- task: learn basic skills and work with others
29
Identity vs. role confusion
- fifth stage of Erickson's psychosocial theory
- corresponds to Freud's genital stage
- adolescence
- task: develop lasting and integrated sense of self
30
Intimacy vs isolation
- sixth stage of Erickson's psychosocial theory
- early adulthood
- task: commit to another in a loving relationship
31
Generativity vs. stagnation
- seventh stage of Erickson's psychosocial theory
- middle adulthood
- task: contribute to next generation through child-rearing, caring for others, or productive work
32
Integrity vs. despair
- eighth and final stage of Erickson's psychosocial theory
- late adulthood
- task: view one's life as satisfactory and worth living
33
Neuropsychoanalysis
- study of the relationship between psychoanalytic theory and biological approaches in psychology
34
Learning Perspective summary
- Learning theorists endorse John Locke’s view that the infant’s mind is a blank slate on which experience writes
- involves classical and operant conditioning
- emphasizes importance of experience in development
- Important figures: Skinner, Pavlov, Watson, Bandura
35
Classical conditioning
- Pavlov and Watson
- link neutral stimulus to unconditional stimulus to produce conditional response to conditional stimulus
- ex. US: scary sound, UR: fear of sound, CS: rat, CR: fear of rat
36
Generalization
when we respond to stimuli similar to CS (ex. stopping at all red lights and not just the one where you learned the rule)
37
Counter-conditoning
- counters classical conditioning
- baby scared of rabbit, rabbit paired with cookies, fear response eliminated
- basis for exposure therapy!
38
Operant conditioning
- Skinner
- behavioural theory about how the consequences of a behaviour can affect future occurrences of that behaviour
- uses positive/negative reinforcement or punishment
(positive = adding something, negative = removing something; both can be used as reinforcement or punishment)
39
Skinner's radical behaviorism
- thoughts aren't important in explaining or understanding behaviour
- behaviour is caused by contingencies of reinforcement
- personality develops through different contingencies of reinforcement
40
Social cognitive theory
- part of learning perspective
- Albert Bandura
- people can learn without personal reinforcement by watching those around them, through imitation or vicarious (observational) learning
- experience gives children a sense of self-efficacy—beliefs about their own levels of ability, skill, and talent to affect events having an impact on them personally
- can increase self-efficacy by: starting small, surrounding yourself with supportive people, recalling past successes
41
Cognitive Developmental Perspective summary
- development reflects children's efforts to understand the world
- children viewed as 'little scientists' who develop and revise theories with experience
- Jean Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
42
Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
- Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
- more about what a child can NOT do!
- child is an active participant in their own development through exploration of the world
- mental representations are important, not just behaviour
- debated widely in psychology
43
Sensorimotor stage
- first stage of Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
- birth-2 years
- knowledge of world based on senses and motor skills
- uses mental representations by end of stage
44
Preoperational stage
- second stage of Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
- 2 to 6 years
- child learns to use symbols such as words and numbers to represent aspects of the world
- only relates to world through own perspective (no theory of mind)
45
Concrete operational stage
- third stage of Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
- 7 to 11 years
- understand and apply logical operations to experiences, provided experiences are focused on the here and now (can't form hypotheses)
46
Theory of mind
- knowing others have different thoughts
- develops after age 6 (after preoperational stage)
- might be lacking in children with ASD
47
Formal operational stage
- fourth and final stage of Piaget's 4 stages of cognitive development
- adolescence and beyond
- abstract thinking, making hypotheses, deductive reasoning
48
Contextual perspective summary
- development is determined by immediate and more distant environments that typically influence each other
- Lev Vygotski believed adults convey to children the beliefs, customs, and skills of their culture
49
Zone of proximal development (ZPD)
- what needs to be done to take the learner where he needs to be
- "what I can do with help"
50
Zone of achieved development (ZAD)
- where the learner is right now
| - "what I can do" (without help)
51
Ecological system's theory
- part of the contextual perspective
- Bronfenbrenner
- views development within a series of nested, interacting systems
52
Microsystem
- part of Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System's Theory
| - those very close to the individual
53
Mesosystem
- part of Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System's Theory
| - connection of microsystems: close family, school/daycare, neighborhood play area
54
Exosystem
- part of Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System's Theory
| - friends and neighbors, extended family, community services, parent's workplace
55
Macrosystem
- part of Bronfenbrenner's Ecological System's Theory
| - laws, values, customs (culture)
56
Culture
knowledge, attitudes, beliefs, symbols, and behaviours associated with a group of people
57
Information-processing theory
- proposes that human cognition consists of mental hardware and software
- adolescents have better hardware and software than younger children
- increase is steady (vs stages like Piaget's theory
- Mental hardware refers to cognitive structures, including memories and where they are stored
- Mental software includes organized sets of cognitive processes that allow children to perform tasks
58
Evolutionary Theory
- evolution shapes which behaviours and characteristics contribute most to the survival of infants and children and, consequently, the survival of humanity
59
Evolutionary Developmental psychology
- part of evolutionary theory
- approach to developmental psychology using evolutionary theory as a metatheory of human development in an attempt to have psychologists agree on a unified perspective of humanity.
- Martin Smith + Bjorklund and Pellegrini
60
Developmental psychopathology
- attempts to present a broad, unified understanding of how abnormal development can occur
- Eric Mash and David Wolfe
- tries to explain how abnormal development occurs within a view of development as a dynamic process involving continual transformation during the lifespan
- try to differentiate between what is normal and abnormal from biological, social, emotional, and intellectual perspectives
61
Freud
- psychodynamic perspective
| - emphasizes the conflict between primitive biological forces and societal standards for right and wrong
62
Erikson
- psychodynamic perspective
| - emphasizes the challenges posed by the formation of trust, autonomy, initiative, industry, and identity.
63
Skinner
- learning perspective
| - emphasizes the role of reinforcement and punishment in response to behaviour.
64
Bandura
- learning perspective
| - emphasizes children’s efforts to understand their world using reinforcement, punishment, and others’ behaviour
65
Piaget
- cognitive-developmental perspective
| - emphasizes the different stages of thinking that result from children’s changing theories of the world.
66
Vygotsky
- contextual perspective
| - emphasizes the role of parents (and other adults) in conveying culture to the next generation
67
Bronfenbrenner
- contextual perspective
| - emphasizes the influences of the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem, macrosystem, and chronosystem
68
Bjorklund and Pellegrin
- evolutionary perspective
- emphasize evolutionary theory as a possible unifying metatheory uniting various sub-fields within developmental psychology as well as psychology in general
69
Martin Smith
- evolutionary perspective
| - emphasizes the survival value of relation-ships between grandparents and grandchildren
70
Mash and Wolfe
- developmental psychopathology perspective
| - emphasize dynamic transformation throughout the lifespan and focus on how abnormal development can occur
71
4 unifying themes in child-development research
- Early development is related to later development but not perfectly
- Development is always jointly influenced by heredity and environment
- Children help determine their own development
- Development in different domains is connected
72
Continuous development theories
- children stay on same path throughout development
- Ecological systems theory
- Skinner's learning theory
73
Discontinuous development theories
- development takes place in distinct stages
- children can change paths at any point in development
- Piaget's cognitive development stages
- Freud's Psychosexual stages
- Erickson's Psychosocial stages
74
Passive development
- child doesn't have a say in development, it depends on what they are exposed to
75
Evocative development
- child evokes a reaction from parents
| - parents are responding to child's abilities
76
Active development
- niche-picking
| - child seeks out experiences that go with their predispositions
PSYC 304
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