Chapter 2

Question 1

What do both everyday reasoning and scientific reasoning use?

Answer 1

Induction → drawing general conclusions from specific observations.

Question 2

How does everyday reasoning work?

Answer 2

Relies on personal observations or stories to justify beliefs.

Question 3

How does scientific reasoning work?

Answer 3

Follows a structured and systematic process.

Question 4

What is inductive reasoning?

Answer 4

Moving from specific observations → general conclusions.

Question 5

What is deductive reasoning?

Answer 5

Moving from general rules/principles → specific predictions.

Question 6

What is falsifiability?

Answer 6

A scientific claim must be capable of being disproven through observation or evidence.

Question 7

What did dogmatists believe?

Answer 7

Illness is best understood by developing theories of the body’s functions.

Question 8

What did empiricists believe?

Answer 8

Illness is best understood by examining sick people.

Question 9

What is empiricism?

Answer 9

Belief that accurate knowledge comes from observation and experience.

Question 10

What is dogmatism?

Answer 10

The tendency to cling to one’s beliefs.

Question 11

What is the scientific method?

Answer 11

Using empirical evidence to establish facts through theory, hypothesis, and testing.

Question 12

Steps to Scientific Method

Answer 12

1. Develop a theory
2. Derive a falsifiable hypothesis
3. Test the hypothesis by observing the world or gathering empirical evidence

Question 13

What is a theory?

Answer 13

An explanation of natural phenomena that makes testable predictions.

Question 14

Can theories be proven?

Answer 14

No. They can be supported but never absolutely proven, only falsified.

Question 15

What is a hypothesis?

Answer 15

A falsifiable prediction derived from a theory.

Question 16

What is a null hypothesis (H₀)?

Answer 16

Predicts no effect or difference between variables.

Question 17

What is an alternative hypothesis (H₁)?

Answer 17

Predicts there is an effect or difference between variables.

Question 18

What is statistical significance?

Answer 18

When results are unlikely to be explained by chance (p < .05).

Question 19

What does p < .05 mean?

Answer 19

There is less than 5% chance results are due to random variation.

Question 20

What is a p-value?

Answer 20

The probability of getting results if H₀ were true.

Question 21

What is a non-directional hypothesis?

Answer 21

Predicts there is a difference/relationship, but does not specify the direction.
ex. Drinking regular coffee vs. decaf leads to a difference in puzzle-solving time.

Question 22

What is a directional hypothesis?

Answer 22

Predicts not only that there is a difference, but also the direction of the effect.
Example: Drinking regular coffee makes people solve puzzles faster than drinking decaf.

Question 23

What is a common misinterpretation of p-values?

Answer 23

Thinking it shows the probability that H₀ is true/false.

Question 24

What is the empirical method?

Answer 24

A set of rules and techniques for observation.

Question 25

What are the two steps of measurement?

Answer 25

(1) Define the property (operational definition) (2) Detect the property (instrument with reliability and power)

Question 26

What is an operational definition?

Answer 26

Defining a property in measurable terms.

Question 27

What is construct validity?

Answer 27

The degree to which an operational definition truly reflects the construct.

Question 28

What is power (in measurement)?

Answer 28

A detector’s sensitivity to detect differences or changes.

Question 29

What is reliability (in measurement)?

Answer 29

A detector’s consistency in detecting absence of differences.

Question 30

What are demand characteristics?

Answer 30

When people behave as they think the researcher expects.

Question 31

What is naturalistic observation?

Answer 31

Gathering data by observing people in their natural environment.

Question 32

What are limits of naturalistic observation?

Answer 32

Events may not occur naturally, require interaction, and can involve observer bias.

Question 33

How do privacy and control reduce demand characteristics?

Answer 33

Use anonymity and measure involuntary responses (e.g., pupil dilation).

Question 34

What is unawareness in experiments?

Answer 34

Making participants unaware of the study’s purpose to avoid bias.

Question 35

What is observer bias?

Answer 35

When an observer’s expectations influence what they see or how they act.

Question 36

What is a single-blind study?

Answer 36

Researcher knows treatment groups, but participants may not.

Question 37

What is a double-blind study?

Answer 37

Neither the researcher nor participant knows who is in which group.

Question 38

Key features of a good detector

Answer 38

1. Power 2. Reliability

Question 39

demand characteristics

Answer 39

those aspects of an observational setting that cause people to behave as they think someone else wants or expects.

Question 40

What is a population?

Answer 40

A complete collection of people.

Question 41

What is a sample?

Answer 41

A partial collection drawn from a population.

Question 42

How to get a representative sample?

Answer 42

Ensure diversity, random selection, and adequate size.

Question 43

What are descriptive statistics?

Answer 43

Methods for summarizing data (central tendency & variability).

Question 44

What are measures of central tendency?

Answer 44

Mean, median, mode.

Question 45

Frequency Distribution

Answer 45

a graphic representation showing the number of times that the measurement of a property takes on each of its possible values

Question 46

What is a normal distribution?

Answer 46

A bell curve where mean = median = mode.

Question 47

What is skewed distribution?

Answer 47

When data are not symmetrical.

Question 48

Negative (left) skew?

Answer 48

Tail on left, most scores high. Mean < Median < Mode.

Question 49

Positive (right) skew?

Answer 49

Tail on right, most scores low. Mode < Median < Mean.

Question 50

What is variability?

Answer 50

The extent to which scores differ.

Question 51

What is range?

Answer 51

Largest score – smallest score.

Question 52

What is standard deviation?

Answer 52

Average difference of scores from the mean. High SD = high variability.

Question 53

What is correlation?

Answer 53

When variations in one variable are synchronized with another.

Question 54

What is the correlation coefficient (r)?

Answer 54

A measure of strength and direction of correlation (–1 to +1).

Question 55

What is a spurious correlation?

Answer 55

When variables appear related but are actually linked by a third factor.

Question 56

What is the third-variable problem?

Answer 56

Correlation ≠ causation, because a third variable may be influencing both.

Question 57

What is experimentation?

Answer 57

Technique to establish causal relationships.

Question 58

What is manipulation?

Answer 58

Actively changing a variable to measure its causal power.

Question 59

What is an independent variable?

Answer 59

The variable that is manipulated.

Question 60

What is a dependent variable?

Answer 60

The variable that is measured.

Question 61

What is self-selection?

Answer 61

When a participant chooses their condition.

Question 62

What is random assignment?

Answer 62

Assigning participants to groups by chance.

Question 63

What is internal validity?

Answer 63

When an experiment can establish causal relationships.

Question 64

What is external validity?

Answer 64

When results can be generalized to the real world.

Question 65

What is a Type I error?

Answer 65

Concluding there is a relationship when there is not (false positive).

Question 66

What is a Type II error?

Answer 66

Concluding there is no relationship when there is one (false negative).

Question 67

What is the case method?

Answer 67

Studying a single individual.

Question 68

What is replication?

Answer 68

Repeating an experiment with a new sample to test reliability.

Question 69

Why do we struggle with critical thinking?

Answer 69

because we see what we expect or want, and ignore what we can’t see.

Question 70

What is informed consent?

Answer 70

Agreement to participate after being fully informed of risks.

Question 71

What is free from coercion?

Answer 71

Participants must not be pressured physically, psychologically, or financially.

Question 72

What is protection from harm?

Answer 72

Use the safest method and do a risk-benefit analysis.

Question 73

What is deception in research?

Answer 73

Allowed only if justified by scientific value.

Question 74

What is debriefing?

Answer 74

Explaining the true nature and purpose after the study.

Question 75

What is confidentiality?

Answer 75

Researchers must keep personal information private.

Question 76

What is the Tri-Council Policy Statement (TCPS)?

Answer 76

Canadian ethical guideline emphasizing respect, welfare, and justice.

Question 77

What are Research Ethics Boards (REBs)?

Answer 77

Committees that approve studies before research begins.

Question 78

What are the 3 R’s of animal research ethics?

Answer 78

Replacement (no alternatives), Reduction (fewer animals), Refinement (minimize pain).