Chapter 2

Question 1

hypothesis

Answer 1

explicit, testable prediction about the conditions under which an event will occur

Question 2

Proposal of a theory

Answer 2

an organized set of principles used to explain observed phenomena (more advanced step in process after hypotheses)

Question 3

Basic research

Answer 3

research whose goal is to increase understanding of human behavior, often by testing hypotheses based on a theory

Question 4

Applied research

Answer 4

research whose goal is to make applications to the world and contribute to the solution of social problems

Question 5

Conceptual variables

Answer 5

variables that are in an abstract, general form when a researcher first develops a hypothesis (ex: prejudice, conformity, attraction, love, group pressure, social anxiety)

Question 6

Operational definition

Answer 6

the specific procedures for manipulating or measuring a conceptual variable

Question 7

Confound

Answer 7

a factor other than the independent variable that varies between the conditions of an experiment, thereby calling into question what caused any effects on the dependent variable

Question 8

Construct validity

Answer 8

the extent to which the measures used in a study measure the conceptual variables they were designed to measure and the manipulations in an experiment manipulate the conceptual variables they were designed to manipulate

Question 9

External validity

Answer 9

the degree to which there can be reasonable confidence that the results of a study would be obtained for other people in other situations (generalization, who can this conclusion apply to?)

Question 10

Internal validity

Answer 10

• the degree to which there can be reasonable certainty that the independent variables in an experiment caused the effects obtained on the dependent variables
• essentially was the experiment valid, was it a good experiment

Question 11

Replication

Answer 11

repeating a research study to see if the results are similar to those found in the original study

Question 12

Subject variables

Answer 12

a variable that characterizes preexisting differences among the participants in a study (ie age, gender, personality traits, ethnicity)

Question 13

Self-report

Answer 13

a widely used measurement technique in which participants disclose their thoughts, feelings, desires, and actions through individual questions or a set of questions that measure a single conceptual variable

Question 14

limitations to self-report

5

Answer 14

not always accurate, can be misleading, affected by the way questions are asked or worded, peoples’ memories are prone to error

Question 15

Bogus pipeline technique

Answer 15

a procedure in which participants are (falsely) led to believe that their responses will be verified by an infallible lie detector - bogus pipeline is in fact bogus but belief in its power discourages people from lying

Question 16

Interval-contingent self-reports

Answer 16

respondents report their experiences at regular intervals, usually once a day

Question 17

Signal-contingent self-reports

Answer 17

respondents report their experiences as soon as possible after being signaled to do so, usually by means of a text message or app

Question 18

Event-contingent self-reports

Answer 18

respondents report on a designated set of events as soon as possible after such events have occurred

Question 19

Observation

Answer 19

method to measure variables by observing people’s actions

Question 20

Interrater reliability

Answer 20

level of agreement among multiple observers of the same behavior, only when different observers agree can the data be trusted

Question 21

advantages of observational methods

Answer 21

avoid faulty recollections and distorted interpretations of our own behavior

Question 22

limitations of observational methods

Answer 22

if we know we’re being observed, we might act differently than usual, scientists have to figure out subtle ways to observe

Question 23

Eye-tracking technology

Answer 23

used to measure exactly where and for how long participants look at particular parts of a stimulus

Question 24

Descriptive research

Answer 24

recording how frequently or how typically people think, feel, or behave in particular ways - often includes observing people, studying records of past events and behaviors, and surveying people

Question 25

Archival research

Answer 25

research that involves examining existing records of past events and behaviors

Question 26

advantages of (descriptive) archival research

Answer 26

secondhand info ensures that researchers did not influence the behavior by their presence

Question 27

Limitations of (descriptive) archival research

Answer 27

available records are not always complete or sufficiently detailed, and may have been collected in a nonsystematic manner

Question 28

Survey research

Answer 28

involves asking people questions about their attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors

Question 29

Random sampling

Answer 29

method of selection in which everyone in a population has an equal chance of being selected for the sample

Question 30

Correlational research

Answer 30

research designed to measure association between variables that are not manipulated (only measured) by the researcher often through observational, archival, or survey methods

Question 31

Correlation coefficients

Answer 31

a statistical measure of the strength and direction of the association between two variables which can range from -1.0 to +1.0, with the absolute value of the coefficient explaining the strength of the relationship

Question 32

advantages of correlational research (3)

Answer 32

- can study associations of naturally occurring variables that cannot be manipulated or induced - can examine phenomena that would be difficult or unethical to create for research purposes - offers researchers a great deal of freedom in where variables are measured

Question 33

disadvantage of correlational research (1)

Answer 33

correlation is not causation

Question 34

Experiment

Answer 34

a form of research that can demonstrate causal relationships because 1) the experimenter has control over the events that occur (the manipulation of variables of interest while ensuring uniformity elsewhere) and 2) participants are randomly assigned to conditions

Question 35

Random assignment

Answer 35

- a method of assigning participants to the various conditions of an experiment so that each participant in the experiment has an equal chance of being in any of the conditions - we want the ONLY thing different between different conditions to be the experimental manipulation

Question 36

Experimental realism

Answer 36

the degree to which experimental procedures are involving to participants and lead them to behave naturally and spontaneously

Question 37

Experimenter expectancy effects

Answer 37

effects produced when an experimenter’s expectations about the results of an experiment affect his or her behavior toward a participant and thereby influence the participant’s responses

Question 38

Mundane realism

Answer 38

the degree to which the experimental situation resembles places and events in the real world

Question 39

Meta-analysis

Answer 39

a set of statistical procedures used to review a body of evidence by combining the results of individual studies to measure the overall reliability and strength of particular effects

Question 40

advantages of cross-culture research (2)

Answer 40

- provides better tests of external validity of research - can help answer questions about the universality or cultural specificity of certain research

Question 41

disadvantages of cross-culture research (3)

Answer 41

- cultural differences affect how people interpret context of questions as they complete a survey - can be difficult to translate material (not necessarily the literal translation, but the more specific interpretation of it in another language) - people may think or act differently as a function of what language is being used

Question 42

Confederates

Answer 42

accomplice of an experiment who, in dealing with the real participants in an experiment, acts as if he or she is also a participant

Question 43

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

Answer 43

take on the responsibility of reviewing research proposals to ensure that the welfare of participants is adequately protected

Question 44

Informed consent

Answer 44

an individual's deliberate, voluntary decision to participate in research, based on the researcher’s description of what will be required during such participation, and the awareness that they are free to withdraw from participation in the research at any point

Question 45

When may informed consent not be necessary?

Answer 45

in the case of anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations, or archival research

Question 46

Debriefing

Answer 46

a process of disclosure made to participants after research procedures are completed, in which the researcher explains the purpose of the research, reveals any deceptions, attempts to resolve any negative feelings, and emphasizes the scientific contribution made by the participants’ involvement

Question 47

preregistration

Answer 47

the practice of researchers reporting their research design, predictions, and plans for data analyses before conducting their study to ensure honest practices

Question 48

confirmation bias

Answer 48

- cognitive tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information that confirms one's pre-existing beliefs, while ignoring or discounting contradictory evidence

Question 49

Issues with the Coca Cola versus Pepsi taste test experiment in class

Answer 49

- experimenter bias => experimenter had effect on study, different way of measuring two drinks, experimenter was more enthusiastic abt one versus the other - confirmation bias => preexisting beliefs of drinks bc experimenter told participants abt beverage he was assigning them - no controls - different cups, shape of color of cup, etc. influences reporting - sample size of four people - taste is subjective, order effect - attractive ppl on screen influencing us

Question 50

What did the Coca Cola challenge teach us?

Answer 50

- Have to be careful about blindly following advice – need to evaluate source before blindly following advice, especially with businesses and marketing

Question 51

empiricism

Answer 51

- system that has been set up, a particular way of observing and collecting information that allows you to make claims

Question 52

quasi-experiment

Answer 52

when not all the variables involved are under the full control of the researcher

Question 53

types of empiricism

Answer 53

- correlation (observation) - quasi-experiment - experiment

Question 54

spurious correlation

Answer 54

correlations that are accidental

Question 55

If the outcome across conditions is different, there is some certainty that what did what to that difference...

Answer 55

manipulation caused that difference

Question 56

What experiment was used to demonstrate the effects of fear on performance monitoring and attentional allocation?

Answer 56

- Researchers took a bunch of spider-phobics, hooked them up to EEGs, had the participants start a task, and they would push Loretta (the tarantula) in a glass tube through the wall of the spot where the person was doing their task (mid-task) to see whether or not it would cause differences in the EEG - Found presence of spider caused differences

Question 57

When would we use correlational data or quasi-experiments instead of experimental studies?

Answer 57

- when there's tons of stuff we can’t fully manipulate: age, race, etc.

Question 58

What does WEIRD stand for? What percent of the population does it account for? How does it apply to psychology?

Answer 58

- Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic - 12% of population - Even if we’re sure that something is true in North America, it’s reasonable to be skeptical that it’s not true in Eastern Europe, for example

Question 59

What is the "cohort effect" and how does it apply to random sampling?

Answer 59

- If you take from multiple people in a friend group, people tend to have more in common with their friends and will have similar behaviors or thoughts - cohort effect - Random sampling (random as possible) maximizes odds that we don’t have a “cohort effect” and that our results generalize

Question 60

Why are control groups significant?

Answer 60

- Important for: determining direction of effect, if effect is actually different from baseline

Question 60

What is a single-blind experiment?

Answer 60

- participants don’t know what condition they are in - real drug vs. placebo, for example

Question 61

Social priming

Answer 61

- a controversial psychological phenomenon where exposure to subtle environmental cues or stimuli unconsciously influences a person's subsequent, unrelated behavior or judgments - poster child for failed replication stuff

Question 62

What is a double-blind experiment? Why is it important?

Answer 62

- experimenter themselves doesn’t know what condition the participant is in as well as participant - important because experimenter could influence stuff

Question 63

How was social priming studied? What was found when doing non-double blind versus double-blind conditions for this experiment?

Answer 63

- Participants looked at word jumble with words related to elderliness (eg. Florida, Bingo, etc.) vs. not – then measured length of time it took for participants to walk down the hallway – they found that those who did word jumble first had some sort of activated age-related networks which “caused” people to walk slower down the hallway - the og non-double blinded findings were replicable, but the actual double-blinded conditions were then not found to be replicable

Question 64

What 5 questions should be asked when evaluating claims?

Answer 64

1. Is it based on any data? 2. Questionable motives of people doing/arguing research? 3. How many participants are in the study? 4. Who were the participants? 5. Do other experts in the area respect that claim?