Belief of Determinism
The belief that the universe is orderly. For any effect, there is a cause.
Belief of Empiricism
Theories should be based on data and not on intuition.
Belief of Parsimony
Simpler is better. If two competing theories predict the same phenomena equally well, choose the simpler until data tells you the theory isn’t enough
Belief of Testability
No amount of experience can prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong.
The Scientific Method
- Observation of psychological association
- Hypothesis of relationship among variables
- Translation of hypothesized variables into specifics
- Review scientific literature to see how people tested the theory
- Choose research format
- Conduct study
- Analyze data
- Conclude from results
Variables
measured conditions, events, characteristics, or behaviors
Hypothesis
an informed guess or prediction about the relationships among variables
Operationalization definition
What happens when you translate hypothesized variables into specifics.
- the concrete measurable or manipulative definition of variable
- ex- if measuring fondness you’d measure frequency of eye contact
The 4 research formats
- Case Study
- Survey
- Correlational Research
- Experiment
Case Study (definition, pros and cons)
- in depth investigation of a single case (one participant, pair, or group)
- pro- real-life observation and rich description
- con- limited generalizability
- used for rare phenomenon that can’t be ethically manipulated
Survey(definition, pros and cons)
- questions many participants concerning phenomenon
- pros- real life, greater generalizability
- cons- self-report biases (people lie), lack of insight
Correlational Research
-correlations- inform us about the nature of relationships between variables in the real world
Signs- as it relates to correlation
positive or negative- reflects pattern of relationship
- positive- A increases, B increases
- negative- A increases, B decreases
Magnitude- as it relates to correlation
how strong the relationship is. Vary from +1 to -1
Third Variable- as it relates to correlation
- sometimes a third variable which causes both A and B
Experiment (definition, pros and cons)
- manipulation of variables to asses causal affects on other variables
- manipulates independent variable and measurement of dependent variable
- Pros- can draw causal inferences
- cons- limited to certain topics
- must have random assignment
Random Assignment in Experiments
- placing participants in experiments randomly- meaning no volunteers
- or else research will be affected by 3rd variable- it could manipulate the independent variable
What are some characteristics of good research?
- avoids bias
- avoids confounds/ third variables
- participants placed in psychologically real experiments
- uses reliable and valid measures
- ethical
How to avoid confounds?
- rigid control of every participant’s experience
- randomly vary nonessentials
Experimenter Bias in a study: observer bias and experimenter expectancy effects
- unintentional
- observer bias- observer expectations can alter the way she perceives behavior
- experimenter expectancy effects- subtle differences in treatment can alter participant behavior and performance
Participant Bias in a study: social desirability bias and suggestibility
- social desirability bias- participants portray themselves as different, affecting the study
- suggestibility- desire to confirm hypothesis or react against hypothesis- affects the way they behave
How to avoid bias (2 ways)
- Single and double “blind procedures” where participants don’t know the hypothesis so they won’t act in a way to confirm or negate it
- use less obvious manipulations or independent variables- ex brain imaging
What is reliability?
How stable the study’s manipulations and measures are. Influenced by validity of results and replication of experiment.
3 Different types of validity
- construct validity
- internal validity
- external validity
