1
Q
What can influence people’s likelihoods of developing chronic/fatal disease?
A
People’s health habits
2
Q
Patterns of deaths resulting from any specific cause? Static or changing
A
Changing
3
Q
In virtually all developed nations, the first and second leading killers are:
A
- Cardiovascular diseases
- Cancer
4
Q
The typical person’s lifestyle includes behaviours that can also be…
A
risk factors for illness and injury
5
Q
– Health Behaviour –
A
6
Q
Health Behaviour
A
Any activity people perform to maintain or improve their health, regardless of their perceived health status or whether the behaviour actually achieves that goal
7
Q
A
8
Q
Well Behaviour
A
Any activity people undertake to maintain or improve current good health and avoid illness
9
Q
Well Behaviour - examples
A
Can include healthy people’s exercising, eating healthy diets, having regular dental checkups, and getting vaccinations against diseases.
10
Q
Well Behaviour - might depend on… (+ why?)
A
- MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS
- Such as individual’s perception of a threat of disease, attractiveness of the opposite behaviour
- When people are well, they may not feel inclined to devote the effort and sacrifice that healthy behaviour entails
11
Q
Symptom-Based Behaviour
A
Any activity people who are ill undertake to determine the problem and find a remedy
12
Q
Symptom-Based Behaviour - Examples
A
Can include complaining about symptoms, such as stomach pains and seeking help or advice from relatives
13
Q
Sick-Role Behaviour
A
Any activity people undertake to treat or adjust to a health problem after deciding that they are ill and what the illness is
14
Q
Sick-Role Behaviour - based on the idea that…
A
sick people take on a specific “role,” making them exempt from their normal obligations and life tasks, such as going to work or school
15
Q
Cultural differences in illness behaviour? (2)
A
- People in different cultures differ in the way they respond to symptoms and go about trying to get well
- Those who immigrate to North America from different cultures differ in their willingness to tolerate pain
16
Q
– Highlight: Which Health Behaviours Are Beneficial against Breast Cancer? –
A
17
Q
What is the a leading cause of death for women around the world?
A
- Breast cancer
- Most frequent type of cancer diagnosed among women in Canada
- Has a very high cure rate
18
Q
Until the early 2000s, many experts thought three health behaviours were effective in detecting early breast cancer:
A
- Getting a mammogram
- Professional examinations
- Self-examinations
19
Q
Until the early 2000s, many experts thought three health behaviours were effective in detecting early breast cancer - are ALL 3 effective?
A
- NO
- Only mammograms
20
Q
– Practicing Health Behaviours –
A
21
Q
Who practices healthy behavior and why - WHAT determines this? (3)
A
- Gender
- Sociocultural
- Age differences
22
Q
Who practices healthy behavior and why - sociocultural explanations
A
People seem to perform behaviours that are especially salient to them (EX medical students not smoking, drinking, using drugs)
23
Q
Consistency in performing health behaviours?
A
- Individuals who practice certain behaviours that benefit their health tend to continue this over time
- But others show little consistency
24
Q
Consistency in performing health behaviours? CONCLUSION 1
A
Although people’s health habits are fairly stable, they often change over time
25
Consistency in performing health behaviours? CONCLUSION 2
* **Particular health behaviours are not strongly tied to each other**
* That is, if we know a person practices one specific health habit, such as using seatbelts, we cannot accurately predict that they will practice another specific habit, like exercising
26
Consistency in performing health behaviours? CONCLUSION 3
* Health behaviours **do not seem to be governed in each person** by **a single set of attitudes** or response tendencies
* Thus, someone may use seatbelts primarily for safety reasons while eating a healthy diet in order to feel more attractive
27
Why are health behaviours not more stable and strongly linked to each other? **1**
Various factors at any given time in people's lives may differentially affect different behaviours
28
Why are health behaviours not more stable and strongly linked to each other? **2**
People change as a result of experience
29
Why are health behaviours not more stable and strongly linked to each other? **3**
* People's **life circumstances change**
* EX: peer pressure may have been important at one time, but no lon
30
-- Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Preventing Illness --
31
The advances in health that have occurred over the years have come about through two avenues:
1. efforts to ***prevent illness***
2. improvements in ***medical diagnoses***
32
Efforts to prevent illness can include 3 types:
1. **Behavioural** Influence
2. **Environmental** Measures
3. **Preventative** Medical Efforts
33
Efforts to prevent illness - Behavioural Influence EX
We might promote brushing teeth and flossing by providing information and demonstrating techniques
34
Efforts to prevent illness - Environmental Measures EX
Public health officials might support municipalities adding fluoride to water supplies
35
Efforts to prevent illness - Preventative Medical Efforts EX
Dental professionals can remove tartar from teeth and repair cavities
36
Is "prevention" only before an illness takes hold?
No; there are 3 levels
37
3 levels of prevention: OVERVIEW
1. **Primary**
2. **Secondary**
3. **Tertiary**
38
Primary Prevention
* Consists of **actions taken to *avoid disease or injury***
* EX: wearing a seatbelt
39
When can Primary Prevention begin?
* Before a person is born or even conceived
* EX: genetic counsellors can estimate the risk of a child inheriting a genetic disorder
40
How else can medical professionals promote primary prevention?
Giving health-promotion advice to patients
41
Secondary Prevention
* Actions are taken to **identify and treat an illness or injury *with the aim of stopping or reversing the problem***
* EX: yearly physical/medical check-ups, mammograms, colonoscopies; all recommended because they detect early + save lives!!
42
Tertiary Prevention
* When a **serious injury occurs or a disease progresses beyond the early stages**, involves **actions to contain or retard this damage, prevent disability or recurrence**
43
-- Problems in Promoting Wellness --
44
45
Preventing illness and injury, as a process, can thought of as:
* Operating a **system**, in which the individual, their family, health professionals, and community play a role
* **Many interrelated factors and problems can impair the influence of each component in the system, and each components affects each other**
46
Factors within the...
individual
47
Factors within the individual?
* **Many people perceive healthy behaviours as inconvenient or unappealing** in comparison with unhealthy behaviours
* In this case, some people may favour unhealthy behaviours for their pleasure; seeing little incentive to change
48
Other factors within the individual - **1**
First, adopting wellness lifestyles may require individuals to **change long-standing behaviours that have become habitual** and may involve addictions, as in cigarette smoking.
49
Other factors within the individual - **2**
Second, people need to have **certain cognitive resources, such as the knowledge and skills, to know what health behaviours to adopt**, to make plans for changing existing behaviour, and to overcome obstacles to change, such as having little time or no place to exercise
50
Other factors within the individual - **3**
Third, individuals need **sufficient self-efficacy** regarding their ability to carry out the change.
51
Other factors within the individual - **4**
**Being sick or taking certain drugs** can affect people's moods and energy levels, which **may affect their cognitive resources and motivation**
52
Interpersonal factors?
Many **social factor**s influence people's likelihood to adopt health-related behaviours
53
Interpersonal factors - family
* Problems might come about as **families are composed of individuals with their own motivations and habits**
* Might **undermine preventative efforts**
54
Factors in the Community
People are more likely to adopt healthy behaviours if they are promoted or encouraged by community organizations (e.g. governmental agencies and the healthcare system)
55
Factors in the Community - issues?
Having insufficient funds for research, adjusting to community members of varying ages and sociocultural backgrounds, providing healthcare for those who need it most
56
-- What determines people's health-related behaviour? --
57
Several processes affect people's health habits, including...
heredity
58
How do people learn health-related behaviour?
Operant conditioning (behaviour changes in response to consequences)
59
Learning - Reinforcement
When we do something that brings a **pleasant, wanted, or statisfying consequence**, the tendency to repeat that behaviour is **increased or reinforced**
60
Learning - Extinction
If the consequences that maintain a behaviour are eliminated, the response tendency gradually weakens
61
Learning - Punishment
When we do something that brings an unwanted consequence, the behaviour tends to be suppressed
62
People can also learn health-related behaviours through...
* modelling
* the consequence the model receives affects the behaviour of the observer
63
If a behaviour becomes *firmly established,* it tends to become
habitual; occuring/performed automatically and without awareness
64
When a behaviour becomes habitual, it becomes less dependent on _ and more dependent on _
consequences; antecedent cues (e.g. seeing a pack of cigarettes)
65
Antecedent Cues
internal or external stimuli that precede and set the occassion for a behaviour
66
How do habitual patterns relate to health-behaviours?
People need to develop well behaviours as early as possible and eliminate unhealthy activies early on, BEFORE they become habitual
67
Social, Personality, and Emotional Factors: Friends/Family?
* Can encourage or discourage child's practice of health-related behaviours
* Can also foster gender differences
68
Two other factors linked to health-related behaviours
**Personality** and **Emotional State**
69
Personality and Emotional State - Conscientiousness
the tendency of a person to be dutiful, planful, organized, and industrious; **associated with practicing many health behaviours**
70
Higher conscientiousness is linked to HIGHER...
* Fitness level
* Healthy food selection
* Mammogram testing
* Medication taking, as prescribed
* Self-reported health
71
Higher conscientiousness is linked to LOWER...
* Alcohol use
* Drug use
* Risky driving
* Risky sex
* Tobacco
72
Perception and Cognition - how can these affect health-related behaviours?
* The symptoms people experience can influence their health-related behaviours
* The way they react varies from ignoring the problem to seeking immediate professional
73
Cognitive Factors on health behaviours?
People must have *correct* knowledge about the health issue and the ability to solve problems that arise when trying to implement healthy behaviour, such as how to fit an exercise routine into their schedules
74
Another important belief that can impair behaviour is called...
unrealistic optimism
75
Do people remain optimistic about their health when they're sick or when a threat of illness is clear?
Evidently not
76
Studies of optimistic and pessimistic beliefs are important for three reasons: **1**
They have revealed that **feelings of invulnerability occur at all ages**, not just adolescence
77
Studies of optimistic and pessimistic beliefs are important for three reasons: **2**
People who practice health behaviours tend to feel they would otherwise be at risk for associated health problems
78
Studies of optimistic and pessimistic beliefs are important for three reasons: **3**
Health professionals may be able to implement programs to address these beliefs in helping people see their risks more realistically
79
-- The Health Belief Model --
80
The Health Belief Model
**The likelihood that a person will take preventative action** - that is, perform some health behaviour - **depends on the outcome of two assessments** the person makes, pertaining to: ***threat of a health problem*, and the *pros and cons of acting against it***
81
Three factors influence people's perceived threat:
1. Perceived **seriousness of** the health problem
2. Perceived **susceptibility to** the health problem
3. **Cues to action**
82
Three factors influence people's perceived threat: Perceived seriousness of the health problem
## Footnote
Health Belief Model
* Ppl consider how severe the organic and social consequences are likely to be if they develop the problem or leave it untreated
* **The more serious they believe its effects will be, the more likely they are to perceive it as a threat and take preventative action**
83
Three factors influence people's perceived threat: Perceived susceptibility to the health problem
## Footnote
Health Belief Model
* Ppl evaluate the likelihood of their developing the problem
* **The more risk they perceive for themselves, the more likely they are to perceive it as a threat and take action**
84
Three factors influence people's perceived threat: Cues to action
## Footnote
Health Belief Model
**Being reminded or alerted about a potential health problem *increases* the likelihood** of perceiving a threat and taking action
85
What barriers might people see in preventative actions? (3)
1. **Financial** ("can I take unpaid time off to go to the doctor?")
2. **Psychosocial** ("people will think I'm getting old if I start having checkups")
3. **Physical** ("my doctor is across town and I don't have a car')
86
The outcome of weighing the benefits against the barriers is an assessed...
sum: the extent to which taking the action is more beneficial for them than not taking the action
87
The Health Belief Model also proposes that **the characteristics of individuals can influence their perceptions of benefits**, barriers, and threat - what factors do these include?
Age, sex, race, ethnic background, social class, personality traits, etc.
88
-- Highlight: is raising perceived threat enough during an outbreak? --
89
What factor, in addition to threat, might also be important during outbreaks?
empathic responding: trying to understand what others are experiencing and feeling
90
Shortcomings of the Health Belief Model? (2)
* **Does not account for health-related behaviours that probably originated and have continued *without the person's considering health threats***
* **No standard way of measuring** its components
91
-- Theory of Planned Behaviour --
92
Theory of Planned Behaviour
**People decide their intention in advance of most voluntary behaviours**, and **intentions are the best predictors of what people do**
93
Theory of Planned Behaviour - what determines people's intentions? 3 judgements
1. **Attitude regarding behaviour** (judgement of whether or not the behaviour is a good thing to do)
2. **Subjective norm** (reflects the impact of social pressure or influence on the behaviour's acceptability or appropriateness
3. **Perceived behavioural control** (similar to self-efficacy)
94
Shortcomings of the Theory of Planned behaviour - problem 1
* **Intentions and behaviour aren't strongly related. *People don't always do what they decide to do***
* HOWEVER - thee gaps can be reduced
95
Shortcomings of the Theory of Planned behaviour - problem 2
**It's incomplete** - does not include, for example, the important role of people's prior experience with the behaviour
96
Health Belief Model + Theory of Planned Behaviour - things in common?
**Both assume people weigh perceived benefits and costs** and behave according to the outcome of their analysis
97
Health Belief Model + Theory of Planned Behaviour - cons?
* Neither approach is sufficient
* **Both assume that people think about risks in a detailed fashion**; when in reality, people might modify their lifestyles (e.g. reducing coffee consumption) for vague reasons, like "my doctor says coffee is bad for you"
* **Neither account for health-related behaviours people perform habitually** (e.g. brushing teeth) which have continued without the person's considering health threats, attitudes, and costs
98
-- Stages of Change Model --
99
Stages of Change Model - main focus?
Readiness to change
100
Stages of Change Model - ppl currently in one stage show...
different psychosocial characteristics from people in other stages
101
Stages of Change Model - stages overview (5)
1. Precontemplation (not considering change)
2. Contemplation (maybe change?)
3. Preparation (let's change!)
4. Action
5. Maintenance (keep up the change!)
102
Stages of Change Model - can you help people advance through the stages? 2 ways
* **Describe how they would carry out the behaviour change**, such as the exact foods they would achieve in a low-fat diet
* **Plan for problems that may arise** when trying to implement the behaviour change, such as if they crave a cigarette after quitting smoking
103
Stages of Change Model - how else can you help people advance through the stages?
* Describe/identify important characteristics of people at each stage, enabling an intervention to match strategies to the person's current needs to promote advancement to the next stage
104
Overall - theories that focus on rational thinking don't consider...
* That the flawed decisions people make about their health often result from motivational/emotional processes not addressed in the theories
105
-- The Role of Less Rational Processes --
106
Motivational Factors - Motivated Reasoning
* People's desires and preferences influence the judgements they make of the validity and utility of new information
* EX: people who prefer to reach a particular conclusion, such as to continue to eat fatty foods or smoke cigarettes, tend to use confirmation bias: search for reasons to accept supportive information and discount disconfirming info
107
False Hope and Willingness - people who don't maintain healthier behaviour are likely to try again; WHY?
* Developing false hopes: believing without a rational basis that they will succeed
* e.g. forming false hopes because they did succeed for a while
108
What risky behaviours occur without careful thought?
* LOTS, maybe most
* People often find themselves in situations they don't expect to happen, in which they have the opportunity to perform an attractive behaviour (but there's some risk)
109
What risky behaviours occur without careful thought? **WILLINGNESS to engage in risky behaviour depends on what?**
* **Positive subjective norms**
* **Atttitudes toward the behaviour**
* Having engaged in the behaviour previously
* Having a favourable social image of the type of person who would perform the behaviour
## Footnote
BOLDED are considered to be a part of the theory of planned behaviour
110
Emotional Factors - stress
can also affect the cognitive processes people use in making decisions
111
Emotional Factors - conflict theory
* presents a model to account for both **rational and irrational** decision-making, and **stress is an important factor in this model**
* ACCORDING TO THE THEORY, **the cognitive sequence people use in making important decisions starts when an event challenges their current course of action or lifestlye**
112
Emotional Factors - conflict theory: challenges faced? (2)
* Threat (e.g. symptom of an illness or a news story on the dangers of smoking)
* Opportunity (e.g. chance to join a free program at work to quit smoking)
113
Emotional Factors - conflict theory: appraisal of risk?
* If the person sees no risk in the status quo, the behaviour stays the same and the decision-making process ends
* **If a risk is seen, the process continues**
114
Conflict theory proposes what about people + major decisions?
People experience stress with all major decisions, particularly those relating to heatlh, because of the importance of, and conflicts about, what to do
115
People's coping with decisional conflict depends on their perceptions of the presence of three factors:
1. Risk
2. Hope
3. Adequate time
116
Three factors in conflict theory produce different coping patterns, including:
* **Hypervigilance**: people might see serious risks in current + alternate behaviours and **feel they're running out of time; experience high stress and search frantically for a solution**
* **Vigilance**: when people perceive serious risks in all possibilities they have considered but **believe they may find a better alternative/have more time to search; less stress and make more careful/rational decisions**
117
-- Development, Gender, and Sociocultural Factors in Health --
118
Can fetal environment be controlled by the mother?
* YES
* EX: placenta and umbilical cord transmitting substances to the fetus from mom
119
3 prenatal hazards of low birth weight:
1. Mother may be malnourished due to inadequate food supply
2. Certain infections contracted by mother can impact baby
3. Substances used by mother can impact baby
120
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome
Caused by mother drinking
121
Childhood and Adolescence - leading cause of childhood death in Canada?
Accidental injury
122
Childhood and Adolescence - how can parents, teachers and other caregivers reduce the likelihood of injury?
* Teaching safe behaviours
* Supervising
* Decreasing access to dangerous situations
123
Childhood and Adolescence - adolescence + preventative behaviour?
* Although teenagers have the **cognitive ability** to make the logical decisions leading to healthy behaviour, they may face temptations and forces - especially **peer pressure** - that lead them in other directions
* Time when they stand the greatest chance of starting to smoke, drink, use drugs...
124
Adulthood & Aging - more likely to/less likely to?
* Ppl less likely than they were in adolescence to adopt new behavioural risks to their health
* More likely to practice health behaviours
125
Adulthood & Aging -differences in behaviours versus in adolescence?
Adults perceive themselves as more vulnerable to illness
126
Adulthood & Aging - research suggests what in terms of young adulthood + consistency of health behaviours?
* A decline in certain health behaviours, including physical activity, as ppl go into young adulthood
* Might be due to changes in social environment
127
Adulthood & Aging - why do people tend to avoid physical exercise?
They tend to exaggerate the danger that exertion poses to their health, underestimate their own physical abilities, and feel embarassed by their performance of these activities
128
-- Gender and Health --
129
Gender & Health - why do women live longer?
* Physiological reactivity to stress is greater in men, inc. susceptibility to heart disease
* Female sex hormone estrogen appears to delay heart disease
* Men smoke/drink more
* Women likely to consult a physician when ill
130
-- Sociocultural Factors and Health --
131
Sociocultural Factors and Health - Canada ranks lower in proportion of deaths related to cancer, chronic respiratory diseases etc. **Do differences in health account for these results?**
* Yes, to an extent
* EX: obesity is higher in the US, which suggests differences in key health behaviours
132
Sociocultural Factors and Health - Americans spend more money on health, but appear to be less healthy overall. WHY?
Could be due to differences in healthcare systems and the delivery of health services, with Canada employing a more universal health care system
133
Sociocultural Factors and Health - low-income countries, social class, and ethnicity
* Low income countries experience an average life expectancy that is over 20 years less than that of the highest income group
* Health also appears to vary by social class and ethnicity
134
Sociocultural Factors and Health - low socioeconomic class + health behaviours
* Have poorer health habits and attitudes than those of higher status
* Less likely to gain health information from the mass media
* Minority groups disproportionately represented
135
Sociocultural Factors and Health - minority status: Indigenous peoples
* 1 in 4 First Nations children live in poverty
* Rates of diseases are much higher
136
Sociocultural Factors and Health - minority groups + describing their own health?
Describe their health as poorer than rest of Canada (ex: Indigenous people)
137
How do immigrants adopt health behaviours of their new culture?
Through the process of **acculturation**
138
How can societies help their diverse populations lead healthy lives?
* Long term: reducing poverty, increasing literacy
* Immediate: present health information at low literacy levels
* **Professionals take the biopsychosocial perspective**
139
3 factors professionals can address to make health-promotion services culturally sensitive?
1. Biological factors
2. Cognitive and linguistic factors
3. Social and emotional factors
140
-- Programs for Health Promotion --
141
Methods for promoting health - how do these start? What is an important step?
* Start by **teaching individuals what these behaviours are and how to perform them**, persuading people to change unhealthy habits
* IMPORTANT STEP: **motivating individuals to *want* to change,** often modifying their health beliefs/attitudes
142
Providing Information - mass media?
* TV, radio, newspapers help promote health by presenting warnings/info
* When ppl already want to change an unhealthy habit, programs on TV can be more effective
143
Providing Information - internet
People anywhere in the world can contact a variety of websites
144
Providing Information - medical settings (advantages)
Advantages: many people do visit doctors offices regularly (making info highly visible), ppl respect healthcare workers as professionals
145
Providing Information - medical settings (disadvantages)
Disadvantages: medical personnel have tight schedules, feel a lack of expertise to help, worry that they might be intruding in patients lives
146
Providing Information - how else can medical professionals offer health promotion information?
* **Offer individuals at risk for genetic illness an estimate of their chances of getting the disease** and the opportunities to undergo tests
* Yet even with this, less than half of individuals appear to affect interest in genetic testing
147
Providing Information - 2 factors affecting willingness to do genetic testing?
1. Deciding to have genetic testing can be agonizing as it reveals a genetic risk, possibly resulting in conflicts among family members
2. Ppl might be less interested in genetic versus behavioural risks, but their interest in genetic factors increase as their behavioural risks increase
148
Features of information to enhance motivation - tailored content
* The advice delivered is designed for a specific individual, based on their characteristics
* Those not tailored (i.e. more general) are called educational appeals
149
Features of information to enhance motivation - message framing
Whether the information emphasizes the benefits (gains) or costs (losses) associated with a behaviour or decision
150
Features of information to enhance motivation - fear appeal
Type of loss-framed messages
151
Motivational Interviewing
* One-on-one counselling style designed to help individuals explore and resolve their ambivalence in changing a behaviour
* Counsellor leads the client to voice arguments for behaviour change
152
Motivational Interviewing - two important features of the process?
1. Decisional balance
2. Personalized feedback
153
The consequences for health-related behaviour can be managed how?
By providing reinforcers when the person practises health behaviours
154
Self-management
Therapists teach behavioural and cognitive methods to clients so they can apply them themselves
155
-- Maintaining Healthy Behaviours --
156
Lapse
* Instance of backsliding (e.g. an occasional cigarette)
* Expected
157
Relapse
* More serious
* Falling back into one's original pattern of undesirable behaviour
* Also common
158
Experiencing a relapse can destroy confidence in reamining abstinence - what is this called?
* Abstinence-violation effect
* Because people are committed to total abstinence, it's easy to see a lapse as a sign of personal failure
PSYC 314
flashcards
Decks in class (36)
# Cards
-
Lecture 1-224
-
Lecture 329
-
Lecture 428
-
Lecture 530
-
Lecture 639
-
Lecture 727
-
Lecture 825
-
Chapter 1105
-
Chapter 3101
-
Chapter 4117
-
Chapter 588
-
-------------------------- MIDTERM 1 --------------------------0
-
Lecture 9 - Health Behaviours and Promotions23
-
Lecture 10 - Health Behaviours and Promotions28
-
Lecture 11 - Health Behaviours and Promotions, Substance Use11
-
Chapter 6158
-
Lecture 12 - Substance Use & Addiction32
-
Chapter 70
-
Lecture 13 - Diet, Exercise, & Weight Control19
-
Chapter 8140
-
Lecture 14 - Using Health Services & Patient-Practitioner Interaction27
-
Chapter 9128
-
Lecture 1520
-
Chapter 1068
-
-------------------------- MIDTERM 2 --------------------------0
-
Lecture 16 - Pain and its Symptoms and Management22
-
Chapter 11 lol119
-
Lecture 17 - Pain and its Symptoms and Management29
-
Chapter 12107
-
Lecture 18 - Managing Chronic Illness and Family Involvement0
-
Chapter 130
-
Lecture 19 - Managing Chronic Illness and Family Involvement0
-
Chapter 140
-
Lecture 20 - Psychosocial Aspects of Chronic Illness and Aging; End-of-Life Care and Bereavement0
-
Lecture 21 - Psychosocial Aspects of Chronic Illness and Aging; End-of-Life Care and Bereavement0
-
Chapter 150
