Cognition

Question 1

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Sensoriomotor Stage

Answer 1

• 0-2 years old
• sensory = senses
• children gather information about the world via sight, smell, taste, hearing, touch etc.
• motor = active
• as you develop how to use senses you learn to move your body around.

Question 2

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Preoperational Stage

Answer 2

• 2-7 years old
• Operational = mental operations like imagining things
• When children are going to develop/engage in pretend play.
• Start to use symbols to represent things.
• Words symbolize objects and children start understanding symbols.
• Also, very egocentric – only concerned about themselves, no empathy (they don’t understand that other people have a different point of view than they do)

Question 3

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Concrete Operational

Answer 3

• 7-11 years old
• operational = mental operations.
• Learn idea of conservation.
• Also begin to learn empathy; begin reasoning of math skills.

Question 4

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development: Formal Operational Stage

Answer 4

• 12+ years old
• reason abstract consequences, and reason consequences; moral reasoning.
• At this point children are reasoning more like adults and they continue to develop that overtime.

Question 5

Piaget: Schemas

Answer 5

• mental models – Frameworks for us organize and interpret new information.
• Piaget belief of cognitive development was in the development of schemas.
• To develop these, you need to be able to grow/change them – which happens through assimilation and accommodations.

Question 6

Assimilation

Answer 6

• how we describe new information/experiences in terms of our current understanding/schemas.
• Acronym: assimilation has “ss” – same schema

Question 7

Accommodation

Answer 7

• how we later adjust our schemas to incorporate new experiences –to remember.
• Acronym: accommodation has “cc” for change or create

Question 8

Problem Solving: Well-Defined Problems

Answer 8

• clear starting and ending point.
• A well-defined problem has a clear criteria that describes whether or not the goal has been achieved.
• Example: how to turn light that is currently dark

Question 9

Problem Solving: Ill-Defined

Answer 9

• More ambiguous starting and/or ending point.
• An Ill-Defined Problem does not have an obviously stated goal or lacks relevant information to solve the problem.
• Example: how to live a happy life. Can still solve ill-defined problems solve but don’t know outcome.

Question 10

Methods of Problem Solving: Trial + Error

Answer 10

• take random guesses till something finally work. Not efficient.

Question 11

Methods of Problem Solving: Algorithm

Answer 11

• methodical approach.
• A logical step-by-step procedure of trying solutions till you hit the right one.
• Not efficient, but are guaranteed to find the correct solution eventually.

Question 12

Methods of Problem Solving: Heuristics

Answer 12

• mental shortcut that allows us to find solution quicker than other 2.
• Reduces the # of solutions we need to try by taking an approach as to what possibilities could exist and eliminates trying unlikely possibilities.
• Don’t guarantee a correct solution, but they do simply complex problems and reduce total # of solutions we will try in order to get to a more manageable #.

Question 13

Methods of Problem Solving: Means-end Analysis

Answer 13

• a heuristic where we analyze main problem and break it down into smaller problems.
• We then attack the problem that has the most difference between current state and goal state.

Question 14

Methods of Problem Solving: Working Backwards

Answer 14

• Start with goal and use it to suggest connections back to current state.
• Used in mathematical proofs, in mazes.

Question 15

Decision Making

Answer 15

• We make a judgement of the desirability/probability of a certain outcome.

Question 16

Decision Making: Availability Heuristic

Answer 16

• using examples that come to mind.
• Helpful, but our easily memorable experiences don’t match real state of the world.
• is a decision making heuristic where choices are based on quick, easily accessible examples.
• Example: More shark attacks on news so you think a shark attack = more fatal. But, firework accidents are more fatal (have a higher risk) but are less available (less publicized).

Question 17

Decision Making: Representativeness Heuristic

Answer 17

• a heuristic where people look for the most representative answer, and look to match prototype – a given concept to what is typical/representative.
• Example: Linda is outspoken and very bright, majored in philosophy and as a student she participated in antinuclear demonstrations and organizations that fought discrimination. What is more likely? Linda is a Feminist bank teller or a bank teller. Most people will say she is more like a feminist bank teller even if they don’t know feminists or anyone like Linda. She fits you prototype of how a feminist would act (she is representative of a feminist).

Question 18

Decision Making: Biases

Answer 18

• that prevent us from making correct decision or from changing decisions once they are made.

Question 19

Decision Making: Biases: Overconfidence

Answer 19

• Example: Going into test without knowing a lot of info. Could be due to fluency (ease of processing) during studying.
• Ex. Can happen in a test if you never tested yourself to see if you really knew the answers. Can overestimate ability to produce answers when you need too. Can also experience overconfidence in an argument.

Question 20

Decision Making: Biases: Belief Perseverance

Answer 20

• ignore/rationalize disconfirming facts
• Example: During elections learned about and then ignore facts about someone you like.

Question 21

Decision Making: Confirmation Bias

Answer 21

• actively seek out only confirming facts.
• Example: Only read stories about how wonderful candidate was.

Question 22

Decision Making: Framing Effects

Answer 22

• how you present the decision can affect decisions as well.
• Example: Disease that will kill 600 people, option A is 100% chance exactly 200 people saved, option B 30% chance all 600 saved and 2/3rd chance 0 will be saved. Which option do you pick? OR A. 100% chance 400 die B. 1/3 chance no one dies and 2/3 chance 600 die.

Question 23

Theory of General Intelligence

Answer 23

• Theorist: Charles Spearman
• Summary: can predict our intelligence in multiple academic areas

Question 24

Theory of Primary Mental Abilities

Answer 24

• Theorist: L.L. Thurnstone
• Summary: 7 factors of Intelligence:

1. Word Fluency
2. Verbal Comprehension
3. Spatial Reasoning
4. Perceptual Speed
5. Numerical Ability
6. Inductive reasoning
7. Memory.

Question 25

Theory of Multiple Intelligence

Answer 25

* Theorist: Howard Gardner * Gardner divided into 7 then 9 independent intelligence (they don’t depend on each other and hence intelligence in 1 area does not predict intelligence in another); 1. Logical-Mathematical Intelligence 2. Verbal-Linguistic 3. Spatial-Visual 4. Bodily-Kinesthetic 5. Interpersonal 6. Intrapersonal 7. Musical 8. Naturalist 9. Existential intelligence.

Question 26

Negative Bias

Answer 26

* is when the negative aspects of a situation are focused upon, instead of the good ones.