1
Q
kewyword
crime
A
- The breaking of the written laws e.g.murder
2
Q
keyword
deviance
A
- breaking the social norms and values e.g. teenage pregnancy
3
Q
formal social control
A
- is based on written rules and laws.
- it is usually associated with the ways in which the state requires and control peoples actions and behaviour
- e.g. police
4
Q
Informal social control
A
- Is based on unwritten rules and processes such as the approval of other people.
- it is enforced via social pressure.
- This may be through family, freinds religion etc
5
Q
functionalist theorist of crime
A
- durkeim
- merton
- cohen
- cloward
6
Q
Durkhiem
A
He argues that crime is healthy for societies, too much crime leads anomie
he identifies 4 functions to crime
- reaffririmg boundaries
- social cohesion
- safety vale
- changing values
- Durkheim has helped us understand how anomie occurs. He discusses the dangers of weakening the collective conscience
7
Q
4 functions
reaffirming boundaries
A
public shaming is a way of showing society what will happen if laws are broken, therefore reminding poeple that they must be law abiding
e.g. shamima begum = left the UK at 15 to join ISIS, resulting in her never being able to join the UK
suggests that we must conform to the socially approve ways of society so that we dont get sanctioned
8
Q
Changing values
A
- Every so often when people are taken to court, important questions are raised about the justice system reflecting the changes in time, values and ideas.
E.G. Aluwahila, was charged with murder and imprisoned for life on the ground of ‘provocation’ (After she set her husband on fire after suffering abuse and brutality for 10 years). But government replace this law with a new defence of ‘killing in response to a fear of serious violence’
9
Q
Social cohesion
A
- crime also strengthens social cohesion, while office crimes are committed, the community comes together
- George Floyd = made an impact around the world of the deep systemic realities underlying black life. It brought a call for actions, bringing communities of all races. - hoping to stop police brutaility
10
Q
Evaluation of Durkheim: weakness
A
- Lea and Young- Durkheim looks at how crime is useful for society but does not look at the harm is causes the victim. e.g. George Floyd
- Durkheim does not specify how much crime is functional. Negative backlash of BLM = Resulted in ALM
- Ignores the inequality between powerful groups. Marxist and Feminist analysis of crime demonstrates that not all criminal are punished equally and this crime and punishment benefit the powerful rather than the powerless
11
Q
Merton’s Strain Theory
A
- strain (associated with struggle and or the inability to retain something)
- Individuals turn to criminal/deviant acts as a means of achieving goals (anomie)
Meetings 5 responses to strain:
- Rebellion
- Conformity
- Innovation
- Ritualism
- Retreatism
12
Q
Rebellion
A
- Individuals creates new methods of achieving the same goals in society = doesn’t always have to be criminal e.g. business ventures
- E.g. London Riots = they were denied to opportunities to apply for jobs and rejected the societal norms. Made it difficult to live in conformity (material deprived). So they resulted in stealing to help their situations
- This could be due to institutional racism within school/labelling within school.
13
Q
Conformity
A
Individuals conforms to the norms and values and continues with the same goals
14
Q
Ritualism
A
Indivisible gives up on goals and norms and values of society e.g. homeless
15
Q
Retreatism
A
Individuals abandon the goals but still conforms to societies norms and values
16
Q
Evaluation of mertons strain theory weakness
A
1) Merton assumes that there is a value consensus and that people only deviate because of structural strain but in reality, people have different values. ⬇️
- For example, Westernised countries hold the point of view of material wealth being important (ethnocentric) but what about other party’s if the world
2) Mertons theory only accounts for utilitarian crime. What about crimes such as vandalism and violence
3) ignores the reason why people cannot gain material wealth e.g. alleviate opportunists and subcultures e.g drug dealing theft
17
Q
Utilitarian crimes
A
Crimes committed for the acquisition of material reward e.g. theft
18
Q
Non- Utilitarian crime
A
Crime that does not have a financial/ material reward (Murder, rape)
19
Q
Status Frustration: Cohen
A
- describe how working-class men feel frustrated by the inability to achieve the same status as members of the m/c.
- Cohen argued that working-class boys often failed at school resulting in a low status.
- Therefore denied the opportunities/access for a job
- A response to this was the formation of subcultures or gangs where status is gained by breaking mainstream values = they express their resentment illegitmately e.g. stealing to attain the things like m/c ppl have
- developed a self-fulfilling prophecy = resulting of element of alienation = feel inferior
- links to Lacey’s study of polarisation and differentiation l.
- when teachers treat pupils differently & polarised them into different categories students act upon it.
- Students level of status will be threatened and they won’t be seen as worthy so they push alternative ways to gain status and perform non-utilitarian.
20
Q
Evaluation: Cohen theory
A
- Middle class have abscribed status (given to them). Cohens theory is flawed because it only discuss about blue collar crime (performed by w/c delinquency) disregards white collar crimes such as corporate crime, (typically performed by the middle class)
- He assumes that all working class boys have the same aspirations as middle class boys. They have been raised with different values.
- Dahl found that working class boys generally just want a job where they can support their family , and aspirations of status are less of a focus
21
Q
Functionalism: Cloward & Ohlin
A
(Used to support a paragraphs of cohen + Merton)
- They take Mertons ideas but say that not everyone turns to ‘money success’ as not all individuals have equal access to the illegitimate opportunity structure.
- they have 3 structures
22
Q
Clowards & ohlin 3 structures (subcultures)
A
CRIMINAL SUBCULTURES
- creates a career in utilitarian crime. (deviant career) = this links to Mertons responses to strain more specifically rebellion = creates new goals
CONFLICT SUBCULTURES:
- Gangs organised by young people themselves, often based on claiming territory from other gangs in so called “turf-wars”
- Prevents a stable professional criminal organisation to emerge and instead forms a gang for releasing young men’s frustration. = aligns with cohens status frustration
RETREATIST SUBCULTURES
- Double failures that fail in legitimate and illegitimate opportunity structure. Usually turn to drug
23
Q
Evaluation of Cloward & Ohlin
A
- As with other functionalist subcultural theories, Cloward and Ohlin write about working-class crime and predominantly about males, yet do not tackle broader issues relating to social class or gender. = They do not question why, in the meritocratic society (described by most functionalists), working-class youths are generally denied access to legitimate opportunity structures.
- they are more than 3 types of subcultures that w/c people can conform to.
24
Q
Marxism & crime
A
- Marxism is a structural theory so it will always see the structures of society as an exploration for behaviour
- The economic base determines the superstructure (crime) and the superstructure maintains & legitimates the base.
Three elements in which it does this:
1. Criminogenic capitalism
2. The state & law making
3. Ideological functions of crime & law
25
Keyword:
White collar crime
Refers to the finically motivated nonviolent crime coming by business and government professionals
26
Keyword: state crime (Bourgeriose crime)
Comes **committed** by the **government e.g. terrorism, torture, genocide etc**
27
# Gordon
Capitalism is Crimogenic
| capitalism causes crime
- This means that the **Capitalist system** *encourages* **criminal behaviour**. Due to the ***emphais on the value*** of **commodity fetishism (romanticisng products)** where **utilitiarian crime** are the only way in **which w/c ppl can obtain what the media advertises** making them *aspire* to ***an unrealistic/unattainable lifestyle.***
- *alienation* **leads to frustraion/aggression**. = *which creates an immense competitive pressure to make more money, to be more successfu*l
- **Gordon** says that Capitalist societies are **‘dog eat dog societies’** in which individuals are **encouraged to look out for their own interests** before the interests of others.
28
# three elements of crime
2. the state and law making
- Marxits see **law making reflecting the *intrests* of the *capitalist* class**: not *the value consensus of societys*
- The bourgioises have the **power** to ***prevent the introduction of laws that would threaten thems***. = ***keeps the state of false consciousness***
- *THALIDOMIDE SCANDAL:* were **drugs taken by mothers for morning sickness** - had **extreme side effects and serve birth defects on babies**. They **used their economic and social capital escape *criminalisation* as the police and courts tend to *ignore crimes committed by the m/c such as fraud.***
29
# Three elements of crime
3. ideological functions of crime and law
| ask denise what example can this be
- **laws** that are **passed down** **act** as a **form** of **ideology** as **they *appear* to be for the *benefit* of the working classes** ***rather than capitalism e.g. health and safety***
- **PEARCE:** Argues that **laws benefit the ruling class by giving capitalism** a '***caring face*' such laws create** *false class consciousness* across workers they **believed that they are being looked after by such laws**, but **marxsists argues it is a way of keeping them 'fit for work'**
30
Evaluation of traditional marxists
STRENGTHS;
- offers a useful **explanation** of **the relationship between crime and capitalism**
WEAKNESS:
- **ignores crime and non-class inequalities** i.e. **gender**, **ethnicty**
- Too **determinitic** and **over** **predicts amounts of working class crime**..
- Not all **capitalistists societies have high crime e,g, *Japan* have a less murder rate than USA.**
31
# NEO-MARXISTS THEORY OF CRIME
CRITICAL CRIMINOLOGY
- mixed bewteen traditional marxists and other perspective like the labelling theory.
- Neo-marxists take a more **voluntaristic** view that people **choose** to commit crime **to express their frustration**
32
# neo marxists
Taylor et al
| fully social theory of deviance
- Aim to create '**fully social theory of deviance'**
There is 6 aspects to be considered one of them is:
1. **The wider origins of the deviant ac**t = refers to the **power structures in society and social inequallity**. - ***motivation for deviant behaviour*** e.g. *the underclass has no power or status so they deviate*
2. **immediate origins of the deviant act** - *particular* **circumstances** that have **caused** person **to commit crime** - e.g. the **loss of a job, or being excluded from having a lower status.** This will be an i**ndividuals motivation to deviate**.
33
Critism of Taylor et al
- ***idealisitc*** - it suggest that **crime is motivated by a desire to get revenge againts inequalities** on society - ***romantices***
- feminist would also argue that it is '**gender blind**' f***ocusing excessively in male crimination and at the expense of female criminality.***
34
# application to Taylor et al
Staurt Hall - Policing the crisis
- He used this to **explain moral panic over the *muggins* in the *1970*'s**
- During the 70's **there was a *pericieved rapid increase* in the amount of muggins committed by black Afro-caribbean men**
- ***moral panic* developed because *capitalism* was in *crisis***
- **As a result of capitalism** was under threat the ruling class used **black muggers as a scapegoat to distract the public from the real problems happening at the time**.
- **Afro-carribbean turned to crime** because of **unemployment/out of frustration** with doing '**white mans shit work**'
35
# keyword = staurt hall
Moral panic
**Public anxiety** around a particular issue that has **been spread over the media**
36
# labelling theory
Interactionist and crime
- interactionists are intresetd in **how and why certain acts come to be labelled as criminal**
- An **act** only **becomes deviant** when a **person labels it as such**
- therefore deviance is **socially constructed**. (dependent on the time, place etc)
- This is why there are **variations accross different cultures and different parts of the world** = cross cultural evidence
37
# labelling and crime
Becker
- A deviant is someone who the label has been succesfully applied to
He identified these stages;
1. **Negative label**: ***moral entrepenue**r (the media, police CJS*) has the ***power* to *label* someone based on *appearence***
2. **Self concept;** self-fufilling prophecy
3. **Label reinforcemen**t
4. **master status**: the criminal is identified
5. **devaint career**: its a life choice
38
Becker Evaluation
- **Becker assumes that devaince starts with labelling:** He ***fails to investigate the reasons why the indiviual committed the act in the first place***. *Why did Wanye Cousin (police) rape sarah everad*
- **Akers stated that his theory is deterministic:**we **have the choice to fufil or deny the label (self-denying)**
39
# can apply him alot
Lermert
- He identifies two **different types of deviance:**
1. **PRIMARY DEVIANCE**: is when **an act is not publicly labelled** e.g. child porno = *done at home (privately)*
2. **SECONDARY DEVIANCE**: when an **act is exposed, leads to hostile reaction and discrimantion**. = ***result of societal reaction***
- **individuals then *iternalies*** the label, leading to a*self-fufilling prophecy.* Lermert argues this the creates a **master status**.
40
# analysis of Lemert
Jack Young
| Marijuana Users Notting Hill
- Jock's study found that in the **initially**, ***drugs were not a main part of their lifestyle (primary deviance).***
- a **false label reality**
- However, **labelling by the police** led the **hippies to increasingly see themeselves as *outsider***
- this **led to group forming a deviant subculture** where **drug taking became central activity**
- The **work of both lermert and Young** illustraes that t**he idea that it is not the act an *individual commits* but rather the *hostile societal reaction.***
41
Cooley 'the looking glass self'
- Cooley said that **we shape ourselves in the way others percieve us**
- This in turn **reinforces and confirms other people opinion of us**
Effects of labelling:
- A **single act can result in being labelled**. This can **have negative consequences for the person being labelled**
- when an **indivual is labelled**, others may **only see that label**. This label becomes the person's **master status** *overriding* all **identities** e.g. a man who steals a car is no lonegr a dad/neighbour but a theif
42
Braithwaite
| Identifies a **positive** role for the labelling process
*He distinguishes between two types of shaming:*
1.**Disintegrative shaming:** the ***crime and criminal behaiour is labelled as bad and offender is excluded from society***. Common in westernised societies
2. **Reintegrative shaming:** *labels* the **act but not the actor**. Reintegrative shaming***avoids* stigmatinsing the offender** as evil, **while att the same time making them aware of the negative impact of their actions upon others**
43
Evaluation Braithwaite
- Fails to explain **why people commit crime before they before are negatively labelled.**
- Marxisit - **focus too much on w/c crime**, white about white collar crime
Counter-evaluation of Brainwraite
- Lermert says **crime and deviance is so common it doesnt need explaining**
44
Why a person is arrested and charged depends on certain factors:
- Their **interactions with agencies of social control such as the police and courts**
- Their **appearence** background and personal biography
45
The Dark Figure of Crime
- Characteristics of all the crime that is **not reported/recorded**
- interactionists believe *official statistic* are **socially constructed**
- this is because ***agents of social contro***l, such as the *police*, **make decisions about whether or not to proceed with a charge.**
- O.S. are *just figures which tell us **about the activities of police and prosecutors** **rather the actual rate of crime***
46
Cirocurel
- Found that officer's **descion** to **attrest are influence by their *stereotypes* about ofendeers**
- This **led them to concentrate on certain 'types**' led to law enforcement s**howing a class bias in the w/c people fitted the police stereotype must closely**
47
# cohen
Moral Panic
- is an **exaggerated media reaction** to **behaviour that deviates from social concerns**, *caused* by **moral entrepreneurs,** - questions whether society is falling apart
- **involves** the **creation of a folk devil**
- cohen believes that **the media created this** because **values were changing, and wanted to reassert boundaries.**
- ***functionalists*** believe **this reduces anomie to raise the *collective consciousness*** *(boundary crisis/maintence)*
- ***neo-marxists*** believes **that this serves as a *distraction* to avoid any rising of a *revolution***
48
# keyword
Moral Entrepenuers
This is a perosn, group or organisation with the **power** to create or **enforce rules & impose their morals, views and attitudes on the others e.g:**
- Religious leaders
- teachers
- parents
49
# keyword
Folk Devil
- Those that **commit the act that cause the moral panic** who **Moral Entrepeneurs wish to demonstrate** e.g:
- *Mods and Rockers*
- *Muslims*
- *Lone parents*
50
Stan Cohen - Folk Devil and Moral Panic
- cohen used the **term folk devil** to refer **to groups of poeple who are *deviant* and *outsiders* in society.**
- looked at **how media portrayed clashes between the two groups**; T*he mods and rockers*
- found that **minor clashes and disturbances were exaggerated** and **made to seem as violent**
- *as a resul*t. **police *targeted* anyone who looks like a mod or a rocker**
- the ***media* also made *predictions* of future clashes and almost advertised events for teengager**
51
Mental Health
- Interactionists *reject* **official stats**. on **mental illness** as they **claim** they are **merely reflection of the activities of those such as psychiatrists** *who* **hold** the **power to attach labels such as 'schizophrenic'**
- ***stats are socially constructed*** e.g. stigma attached to mental illness and symptons of mental illness are often seen as deviant.
52
Lemert and the self- fulfilling Prophecy
- Lemert believes that when an individual is **labelled as '*mentally ill*', a self fufilling prophecy takes place.**
- SCENARIO: if a person is *labelled as mentally ill, that label will impact on how that peson behaves*
- According to him, **some individuals do not fit into social groups** (*w/c, females, black* etc) This is an **example of primary deviance**
- Thus, **labelled by others** and are **excluded** (when a person **cannot conform to societal normas and values)**
- This sparks paranoia and thus **sparks the beginning of secondary devaince.**
53
# Analysis/support of Lemert A03
ROSENHAN
| Analysis of secondary deviance
- He told 9 (fake) puedo-patients tht they were schizophrenic and they should not clean themselves
- All patients acted noramlly and told doctors that they could not hear any voices = but labelled was still attached as 'not healthy'
- this **becomes their master status**
54
LEFT REALISM
- Lea and Young
- Causes crime
1. Relative deprivation
2. Subculture
3. Marginalisation
55
RIGHT REALISM
- Murray, Wilson and Kelling
- causes of crime:
1. Biological differences
2. socialisation of the underclass
3. rational choice theory
56
# 1. left realism
Relative depreiavtion
| feeling deprived compared to others.
- Deprivation is often said to be a **root cause of crime**
- **Lea and Young** noted that **this is not always true.**
- If someone feels **relatively deprived compared to their peers then they are *more likely to commit crime* in order to get the *material* things they think they need.**
- The **media advertising** makes people more aware, **raising everyone’s desires for media possessions.**
this **links with Mertons strain theory** and **Marxism Commodity** Fetishism as it **explains the experiened of the deprived** - *individuals seek other ways to obtain luxury* products that *the media romanticises*
57
# Evaluation
Relative Dep. criticism
- So it causes crime by **encouraging people to be interested in their *own individual pursuits* rather than those of the whole of society**
- This links to **Gordon (traditional marxist) views *Dog-eat-dog society***= contributing to **selfish goals, **putting themsleves before crime (**triggered by capitalism**)
58
# 2. left realism
Subcultures
* response to the economic society and its economic success - **needs to meet a lifestyle**
* acts a form of **coping mechanism**
* Left Realists highly value the work of *Cohen, Merton and Cloward and Ohlin*, especially their ideas upon **‘blocked opportunity structures’** (similar to glass-ceiling) and the **subsequent reaction to inabilities** to **achieve goals.**
Young notes there are ghettos in the USA where there is full immersion in the American Dream. They are hooked on branded goods and opportunities to achieve these goals legitimately are blocked.
59
Marginalisation
Marginalised groups **lack clear goals and organisation to represent their interests**.
This means that they **become frustrated and resent the fact that their voices are not heard or listened to.**
Being **powerless** (*w/c, females, children*) to use **traditional methods (*working*)** to **improve their position, they express their frustration through criminal means such as violence and rioting. (non utilitaraian) = for self-worth**
**links with staus frustration & Alienation:** they express their frustration through criminal means like utilitarian crimes
60
# GREAT ANALYSIS FOR LEFT REALISM
Late modernity, exlusion and crime
| Young
## Footnote
youths/ethnics - **overrepresented** in **crime stat**s & more **welfare spending.**
- **Young** argues we now live in a **late modern society** = where there is **high levels of instablity/insecurity and exclusion.**
- Today **we have more individual *freedom* compared to before (secularisation)**
- **Employment is precarious (*dangerous*)** e.g. **0 hr contracts** (*affects many youths/ethnic minorities*) = **overrepresented** in **crime stat**s & more **welfare spending.**
- The **spread** of **free market (reduces status control) encourages individualism**
- There is a **contradiction** *betweeen* **young people** being **cultrually included** (*access media/ exposed to materalistic items)*. But **on the other hand**, are **economically excluded** (*unable to achieve the materalisitc goods*)
- *Despite ideals of meritoracy* **poor peoeple are unable to achieve material wealth, denying them to opportunity to achieve goals legitmately.**
- we could **analyse this with Gordons ideas of (commodity fetishism)**
61
solutions to crime
- cctv
- community service
62
# Blair BBC interview
Government Policy
- *Left realism views are similar to new labour*
- They are **tough** on **the crime of cause**
- Tony Blair empahsies that we need a ***'new stratgery of the underlying causes of crime**'* = such as **insecurity/disrimination**
- he also states we are *'**forever firefighting and will never get the grips with the real problem' of crime'*** - BBC = **links to Whitty comestic theor**y, whereby **the public seems that they are stopping crime but there is *no opportunity structure* helping them**
63
Policies that theGovernment been used to attempt tackle crime
**NEW LABOUR**
- **ASBO's** (*Anti-social behaviour problems*) conerns about vulnerable groups from low-level disorder = *However* did not bring a sense of community - **it *encourages* deviant career = seen as a *reward***
**Coalition**
- **Crime map** = **Under/overrepresntative on ethnic minorities** = ***dark figure of crime = Encourages labelling/cooley looking glass self***
64
Evaluation of Left Realism
- They **do not *adequately*** ***explain criminals motive for community crime***
- Everyone who experience **relative deprivation does not commit crime**. Crime may occur **because of inadequate socialisation**. *Merton's **responses** to **strain theory*** supports this - **conformisism** (**they have the *correct* norms and values and *do not* commit crime.)**
- Marxists argue that **it fails to explain corporate crime**, which is much **more to the public**
65
Right Realism
- Similar to left realist, right realist **see crime as a *real problem*** & the fear of **crime** as **rational** = choice
- Unlike left realist, **they believe that improving social conditions will not eliminate crime**.
- **poverty is *not* the reason why people commit crim**e = e.g. *elderly people are not wealthy but do not commit crime*
- **right realist** tend to think that other **sociological theories are too sympathetic**
Three factors for crime:
1. Biological differences
2. Socialisation and the underclass
3. Rational choice theory
66
Biological differences (rather right realist)
**Wilson**:
- Biological differences make some people **innately** more **like to commit crime than other**
- **Personality traits** such as **aggressiveness and risk taking** = means **someone is at greater risk of offending (testosterone levels in men)** = ***they have the biological tendency to commit crime***
- **Low intelligence (underperformed at school)** has **also been identified** as **biologically determined if one will commit crime** = they are **more likely to *not make rational choices* and therefore *more prone* to commit crime**
Evaluation
- However, **everyone** is put **under universalistic condition**s (*Parson*), so *although* men could be aggressive, *they could able be high on intelligence*
67
2. Socialisation and the underclass
- **Effective socialisation** can **reduce the risk of people offending**. Right realists believe that the **nuclear family** is the **best way** to **teach the correct norms and value’s.**
Analysis
- *Murray* =links this to the **fatherless families in a nuclear family**. A typical **nuclear family *consists* of the expressive mother & instrumental/dispilarain role**. The disciplinarian (father) will **teach the child the correct Norms and values and *won’t feel the need to express their anger elsewhere***
- He argues **the breakdown of the nuclear family** will **result in children to commit deviancy amplification** due to **(inadequate socialisation/ lack of a role model) = lone parent families**
- He also says that families are **‘married to the state’** ***(w/c families believe that the state will save them)*** which will **decrease their motivation to go do better and to engage in non-utilitarian crimes (petty crime)** = they are **materially and culturally deprived**
68
3. Rational choice theory
- People make a **rational choice** to commit crime. - free will
- They **think about the possible outcomes of an action**, and **if the benefits of committing a *crime* seem *better* than the *risks***, they are **more likely to commit the crime**
- Neo-Marxists argues its a (**a political decision**) = whilst **this might be true not everyone has the capacity to commit crime**
- E.g. In **America**, some **states** have adopted a **3 stroke rule**, which a**utomatically gets an individual life imprisonment.**
- *However*, ***despite* this crime rose dramatically**
(Evaluation) =
- **this is because oppressed**, **marginalised** groups **felt** that they were being **targeted/ labelled so resulted in lermerts ideas of secondary deviance**.
- traditional Marxists believe **due to criminogenic capitalism**, *w/c* are **forced to commit crime = *have no choice***
69
Tackling crime for right realist
- CCTV
- **Zero tolerance policy** - people should **serve harsh penalties for anti-social behaviour**
- Harsher punishments
- **USA 3 strikes**
Right realsit believe that **biological difference**s and **differences in socialisation** **cannot be easily changed**
Instead **they seek to make crime*less attractive*** through **harsher crimes** and **a zero tolerance approach to miner crimes/ disorder.**
This brings…
- **Reaffirming boundaries** = broadcasts harsh punishment to the media
- And as a result they use **Disintegrative shaming**
70
# right realists
Wilson & Kelling - Broken Window Ceiling
- They argue that in order to **prevent crime spiralling**, **minor offences need to be deceet *harshly* to *stop further criminality***
- **Human behaviour** is *impacted* by **environments** *e.g. graffiti walls, dirty and begging* = **leads to crime.**
- They argue that leaving broken windows unrepaired, tolerating aggressive behaviour etc. sends out a signal that no one cares.
71
Evaluation of right realist
- **Ignores** *wider* **structural causes such as *poverty***
- **over-emphais** **control of disorder**, rather **than tackling causes of neighbourhood *decline* such as *lack of investments***
- **Advocating zero tolerance** policy **gives police free rein to discriminate againts ethnic minority youth, the homeless etc**
72
# Stats.
Ethnicty n crime
- **Stop and search** is **an instegator in secondary deviance (Lermert)**
- *'Members of our **black communities are 7x more likely than their white counterparts to be stop and searched'***
- Other ways to measure crime and ethnicity:
1. Police Recorded statisic
2. Victime surveys
3. self-report studies
73
Police recorded statistics
| How useful are they when understanding crime rates by *ethnicty?*
- Ethnic groups are **overrepresneted** in **official stats** as **police place more attention to black people** and **thus more likely to be labelled (a product of institutional racism)**
- **For example,** *stop and search stats*
-**As a result**, this **leads** to lermerts **(secondary deviance)** = **have a career in crime = leads to dark figure of crime**
- **Postivits** will say its ***useful* as they make *generalisation* and *trends***
74
# Other sources of statsiscs
Victim surveys
| How useful is it when measuring *crime and ethnicty?*
- **Asks people** to say **what crimes they have been victims** of in the past 12 months
- **Black people are overrpresented in the victim surveys** when poeple **report they were mugged**
- its also takes alot of **intra-ethnic crimes** (it **takes place within ethnic groups rather than between white groups)**
Evaluation:
- **Phillips & Bowling:** *white victims* **often over-idnetify black people as being the perpetrator of crime, even when they are not sure**.
- This might **due to deviancy amplification** = **relusting in moral panic** - there' s a ***subconscious bias (internalise stereotype on one)***
| sociologist may dispute methods like O.F. and use other methods like thi
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Self report studies
| How useful is it when measuring *crime and ethnicty?*
- ask individuas to **disclose their own crimes**
- this method **challeneges the view that black people commit crime more than white**, but **supports the view that asains are less likel**y
x = May **exagerate/lie to look cool/ gain status** (status frustration)
| sociologist may dispute methods like O.F. and use other methods like thi
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# Ethnicty and crime
Left realism vs Neo-Marxists
Sociologlists are split between two camps:
**LEFT REALIST:**
- O.F. are ***accurate*** and **ethnic minorities do commit crime**
- **There are specifc reasons** (such as relative, material dep.) that **ethnic minorities suffer from which is why they commit more crime**
- The **police and racism** cannot **be blamed for creating high black crime rates**.
**Neo-marxism**
- o.f. are a ***social construction*** = (**based on the actvities of the police, rather than the actual rate of crime)**
- CJS **are racist and so ethnic minories are *over-represented***
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Left realist (causes of crime) can be related to *ethnic minorites;*
1. **Relative deprivation** – society today is **more prosperous(dangerous**) but **more crime ridden** because, t**hey are more aware of relative deprivation** **due to the media and advertising**. In addition, **ethnicty minority experience *higher rates of exlusion*** due to **labellling/ elements of institutional in school.**
- *As a result*, ethnic minorites are l**eft without qualifications and are more likely to experience *relative deprivation as they are denied access to get a job***.
- ***Gilborn and Youdell*** supports this as they discovered that there is ***misinterpretations of cultural norms***
3. **Negative subcultures** – subcultures **form** **due to blocked opportunities and as a group’s reaction to failure to achieve mainstream goals**. supporters ***Murray*** = says **its due to absence father** in the nuclear family which **means** **that black boys in particular lack a displinarian = more prone to commit crime**.
= **they react through crime**
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# ethnicty and crime
Gilroy: The myth of black criminality
- MYTH: bc is **not actual criminal, theyre just standing up for basic human rights** (***not for material/malicious gains***)
- The argument **asserts that the notion of Black criminality** is a **product of racist stereotypes surrounding Afro-Caribbean and Asian individuals.**
- Championed by Gilroy, he suggests **that crimes committed by ethnic minorities** should be **seen as a form** of **political resistance against a racially biased society**, *rooted* in **historical struggles *against British imperialism* (britain making sure everyone globally follows the rules)** = some **social groups comes collectively in opposition for this*e.g. rioting***
- This **viewpoint aligns** with both **traditional** and **neo-Marxist perspectives**, framing crime as a **political resistance** (voluntary) against the capitalist system. = **express their dislike of capitalism**.
Analysis:
- **Althusser RSA's**: Law and order are part of the **repressive state apparatus** e.g. riots etc
- represses the law = maintains the **status quo/social stabilty**
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# LEA AND YOUNG
Evaluate of Gilroy myth of black criminality
| ethnicity
- **1st generation immigrants** in the 60's were very **law-abiding**, so it is **unlikely** that they *passed* down the tradition of **anti-colonial stuggle** to their children
- The **need to criminalise black people's behaviour is minimislied/outdated**
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# ethicinity and crime
Hall: The Policing Crisis
* Hall adopted a *neo-Marxist perspective.* He argues that the 1970’s saw a **moral panic over Black ‘muggers’ that *served to distract them away from the crisis of capitalism.***
* He believes that by presenting *Black youth as a threat to the fabric of society*, the **moral panic served the *divide* the *working class* and *weaken* the opposition to capitalism.**
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# ethnicity
Policing: McPherson report = stephen lawerence
| victimisation
* Crime: a **black man was murdered by a group of white males** = they **werent arrested/criminalised** for it. & **family was given little support/respect.**
* McPherson finding: **treatment of lawrences at hospitals: the inspector *failed* to deal with**
* **insitutional racism** was found to be **one of the reasons why inspector invaded justice**
* This **affects the representations of ethnic minorities in *offical stats.* which mean naturally that they will be *targetted* more (as a result of insitutional racsim)** - avoiding white ppl crime = **Gilroy** will **support** this
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Reasons why *ethnic* minories are victims of crime
1. - marginalisation
2. - subcultures (gang culture) = dont follow norms and values
3. - relative deprivation (unemployment) = more opportunities to commit crime
4. - rascim in wider society e.g. moral panic/hate crime
*BCS (British Crime Survey)*
- *1 in 3 blacks are murder victims, compared with 1 in 10 Asains (gang culture)*
There are 2 aspects this is because:
**RACIST INCIDENTS**: ***racially motivated** crime e.g. **south asains** a are **more likely** than a white person to be **victim of a racially motivated offence** (*media* use **muslims as a scapegoat** - ***encourages islamaphobia***)
**VICTIMISATION**: link to **other factors** such as **class and living in high crime areas.** = ***crime rates links to deprived areas*** *(broken window theory)*
*Cicourel* supports this as he suggests that people have a **preconcieved sterotypes**, which **innately targets *black* people.***
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# Institutionalised racism + McPherson
Ethnicity and victiminsation
| canteen culture (keyword) - **Reiner**
* *After the murder of Stephen Lawrence* , the Macpherson Inquiry **claimed that the police are characterised by *‘institutionalised racism’.*** = they **have a *shared consensus* that *ethnics* are the *enemeies***
* The *police* **operate by procedures** that **tends to exclude or to disadvantage ethnics**.
* This is racism that is **not necessarily intentional** *but* are **based upon *racist ideas and practice*** (**racism is ingrained in the system**).
* **Reiner** argues that there's a **‘canteen culture’** amongst the police; **the way in which people working in a particular workplace can develop *a shared set of values*.**
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Gender and crime
|| double deviance
- when women are viewed as having **broken societal norms and expectations of how how woman behaves** & therefore they are **punished more harshly**
85
Three arguments in relation to gender and crime
CJS - too **lenient**
CJS ~ treats men and women **equally**
CJS ~ treats women more **harshly**
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Leniency: The chivalry thesis
- Argues that the CJS are **more lenient towards women**.
- This is **because they are mostly men and have been socialised** to **be chivalrous towards women and have *paternalistic/ protective* role over women**
- when women are stopped by the police they are able to use their **femininity and cultural capital** (***using their expressive quality e.g. childcare, low paid work***) to **navigate their way out of minor offences**
- ^Suggests that the CJS is **part of the ideological state apparatus** = (***chilvary exists because of the female role in upholding capitalism)*** = need to **socialise** the **next generations of workers**. This is **whilst the male performs the instrumental role**. However **if the mother goes to prison** = c**hildren are prone to commit crime.** - link to murray- inadequate socialisation
- **HOOD**~ studied 3000 **defendants** and found t***hat women were 1/3 less likely to be jailed in similar cases.***
- **victims** of crimes **committed by women** **may also feel embarrassed to report the crime. (Demasculine the male)**
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Pretty woman syndrome
- the idea that the **public feel sympathy** for female criminals **if they are young and pretty**
- the same can be said for **police officers whenever *deciding whether* to arrest a female or not.**
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Evidence against the chivalry thesis
| farrington & Morris
**Farrington & Morris** - conducted a **study of sentencing in courts**. *Although* **men received more serve sentences** than **women**, the **differences disappeared** when the **severity** of offences was taken into court (**males commit more serious crime not because they are treated more favourably**)
- women are also more **likely to show *remorse* for a crime which considered by a judge when deciding a punishment**
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2. Women are tested more harshly
/ **double deviance**
- Cjs are **biased** ***against*** women
- women **who *do not conform* to *stereotypes* of *motherhood* are *treated more harshly* (*patriarchal/sexist system*)**
- **Sexually promiscuous women are judge**
- **raped cases: poor conviction rate**
- women commit **less violent crime** so **people** are **more outraged** when **they hear a women committing to crime**.
- **SlutWalk Protest** supports this. Participants **protested against** ***explaining or excusing*** **rape** by **referring to any aspect of a woman’s appearance**. = links to **17 year old girl who was rape and her underwear was shown in court as it was said to provoke her attacker**. She ***later committed suicide***
- Feminists argue **there are *double standards* bc the CJS is *patriarchal*. Women and convicted more *harshly* and also *blamed* for acts of assault**
- ^ Functionalist would say that **this reaffirms boundaries** = ***women should conform to the societal expectations of a mother.***
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Carlen supports gender and crime
- Women are **jailed** ***based*** on **the courts assessment of them as wives & mothers rather than because of *the seriousness of their crime***
- she found **that Scottish judges were more likely to jail women whose children were in care than those that appeared to be good mothers**
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Functionalist sex role theory
| Gender
- This is the **difference in socialisation between male & female**
- **Parson** *traces these differences* in t**he conventional nuclear family**. While **men take the instrumental role** (**performed outside of the home**). = **more prone to commit crime**
- Women **perform the expressive role in the home** = ***take responsibility for socialising the children.*** - **less** likely.
- This means that **boys reject feminine models of behaviour that express tenderness, gentleness**.
- **Instead, boys seek to *distance* themselves from *such role models* by engaging in *‘compensatory compulsory masculinity*** = to *obtain that breadwinner status - prescribed gender role - they feel the need - seek through alternative means such as* ** non-utilitarian crime**.
Criticism:
Gives **too much emphasis on socialisation** **but it’s to** **do with biological difference (right realist)**
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Control theory HEIDENSOHN
|gender
Argues that **woman’s behaviour is conformist** - they **commit fewer and less crime than men**. This is because **patriarchal society** imposes greater **control over women** - **dont have** the opportunties to commit crime
- This operates in the
1. home (***daughters are less likely to be allowed to go out late then males***, t**hey develop bedroom culture which *reduces them to do more housework***
2. in the **public sphere** (f***ear of male violence e.g. rape {Sarah Everad}***. This *supports* ***Lees notes in school where boys control girls through sexual verbal abuse, e.g. labelling them as ‘slags’***
3. at **work** (**women’s subordinate positions** *reduced* **their opportunities to engage in major crimes e.g. ‘glass-ceiling’ *prevents* women from rising from rising senior positions )**
However this **underplays** the i**mportance of free will**, it **accused** to see **women’s behaviour as determine by external forces of patriarchy**
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# Alder
Liberation thesis
| Gender
**Alder**: **changes** in the **structure** of society have led to **changes in women’s offending**.
- As **paitrchal controls/ discrimination** have **lessened, & opportunities in education**/ **work** has **become more equa**l women **have *adopted* *traditional* ‘male’ *illegitimate activities* such as *white collar crime/ violence***
IN **MODERN** SOCIETY: there’s **been media talk about ‘*girl gangs***’ = **women have adopted ’male stances’ such as looking ‘*hard*’** = **New man** theory c**ould used for analysis for this** as males **take on the expressive role** which **gives men the opportunity to commit crime**
- **suggests that crime stats are outdated and women commit more crimes**
Evaluation:
Most **female criminals are w/c**, the group **least likely to be influenced by women’s liberation, which has benefited m/c more**
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Masculinity and crime
| Messerschmidt
- **Messerschmidt:** argues that **masculinity is a social construction (not fixed).**
- He says that **there are different type of masculinities**
- **Hegemonic masculinity** is the **dominant**, prestigious. Form that **most men want to accomplice (dominant, working)**
- Some have **subordinate** masculinities. These **include gay men as well as lower class and some ethnic minority***** men who lack resources to attain the hegemonic masculinity (legitimate opportunity struggle are blocked) = Merton***
CRITCISMS:
* Its just a description of male offendors
* doesnt explain why not ALL men use crime to accomplich masculinity (can have hegeomic masculine and not commit crime)
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# alternative stance to crime
Katz research on enjoyment of crime
| why men commit more crime?
* This search **for pleasure is meaningful when equated** with **masculinity’s stress upon status, control over others, and success.**
* **Violent** crime is '**seductive**' undertaken ***for chaos, thrill and potential danger***.
* *postmodern* - **risk-taking ooportunities**
* **Traditional** ways of **asserting masculinity** e.g. **being in a nuclear family,** *enanging* in the **intrumental role have become** ***disemmbedded*** (lost) = **we now have lost gender roles, women earn more money (men are threatend**)
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Does the media cause crime?
| evidence/perspective
1. ***Lea and Young*** – Left realists believe that **the media help to *increase* feelings of *relative deprivation***. This **increases** levels of **social exclusion and marginalisation.** Therefore they view ***the media as a instrument in promoting crime.***
1. ***Ditton + Duffy*** - found that **46**% of **media reports** were about **violent/sexual crimes**, yet **only 3%** **made** of **all crimes recorded** = shows that **the media *overplays* extraordinary** crime. Perhaps **to scare the women to stay at home = reinforces patriachy. = *functionalist* would apply control theory.**
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# Different views on moral panic:
McRobbie and Thornton
* The concept of a moral panic is **no longer useful** for understanding crime= **outdated**
* New media technology, **24/7 news** cycles, have caused a moral panic.
* Moral panic is now ‘**routine**’ and **expected** – we are no longer **‘triggered’** by the media
* media ‘**exaggerate**’ crime.
* We as a public have become **desensitised** to **the shock horror effect of moral panics**
**Thornton** - In today’s society we are so **fragmented** and **distorted** about **our own views and beliefs that there is no dominant value consensus** response **to moral panics anymore**, groups **react in their own way**. = this is **due to *migration in globalisation,* which means people are replacing their own culture/beliefs = supports *'cultural homology'***
Evaluation: **functionalists** would say that the news is still **neccessary** t**o support boundaries, rules still serve to help us with our limits.**
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# Different views on moral panic:
Pluralist and Postmodernist views
* There is now such a huge **diversity** of **media reports/interpretations of events**, and of opinions to these events **that people today are much more *sceptical* of media reports and are *less likely to believe* them**.
* This means that it is more **difficult for the media to define issues** in such a way **that they can develop into a moral panic**.
* News is **also updated and reported** on almost **minute-by-minute. e.g. insta etc *(different way of delievering)***
* **As a result**, **most criminal and deviant events** now ***have such a short shelf-life (expiry)*** that they are **unlikely to be newsworthy** for l**ong enough** to **become a moral panic.**
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Different views on moral panic:
Beck
* In contemporary **‘risk society’** there are now so **many uncertainties** that many of the things that **used to generate moral panics** have **become a normal part of daily life.** - **‘*crime consciousness***’ is a part of normal, every day life.
* the **definitions of deviance keep changing**. and *less easy to define what a moral panic might be.*
* e.g. **Single motherhood was *deviant* in the 50’s and now it is *accepted*. The media’s role therefore could be *shrinking*.**
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# neo-marxists
Different views on moral panic:
Steve Hall (critical theorists)
- Hall believes that that the role of the media is to **stigmatise and divide the working class** as a means **of legitimising the capitalist rule over them**.
- Hall **explores** the **moral panic of ‘black muggings’** and claims they were u**sed by the ruling class to legitimise their rule.**
* Hall argues that moral panics enforce the rule of capitalism in 3 ways;
3. **legitimises social control** to **stop** these **moral panics happening again**. Using **black muggings** as an example it **opens up the legitimisation of surveillance** and CCTV. = aligns with **Betham**'s ideas of a **Panopticon effect**. **through surveillances and constant monitoring of marginalised groups**, this **reinforces the further stigmatisation and marginalisation of these groups, while simultaneously diverting attention away from systemic issues like their exploitation perpetuated by capitalism.**
- Therefore **Cohen is wrong** to say that the role of the **media is just to sensationalise groups for the thrill of it**, instead it is **used as a ruling class tool of oppression.**
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Globalisation and crime
- is the **interconnectedness** of the world as a result of increased trade.
- **Something that happens in one part of the world** can heavily **affect another part that is far geographically** e.g. the **Ukraine and Russia** war = **meant that items increased**
- ***Trafficking, cyber crime, Green crime, money laundering*** are **examples** of this
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Crimes committed across the national boarders
**People trafficking** is not new, but it has been **made easier/profitable by globalisation.**= ***Mostly trafficked for prostitution*** & children are smuggled for the same reasons as well as illegal adoption, forced marriage and soldiers. **(Links to ‘the *feminisation of migration*’. Criminal organisations are exploiting women through the use of *commodity* (female sexuality)**
- **Drug Trafficking**: Drugs **grown** in **other parts of the world** such as, the Middle East and ***South America make their way to the UK*** = Globalisation has **made drug trafficking easy, faster and detection less likel**y.
* The more goods that flow in and out of countries, the more likely that drugs will be smuggled in.
* ***20% of the population in Columbia are reliant on the cocaine trade to make a living***
^ the government also provides us drug takers consumers & gives the media the means to create a moral panic (which benefits the elite)
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Global risk consciousness
1. Globalisation fosters a **heightened sense of risk consciousness**, where ***threats* are perceived on a *global* scale rather than locally. (Links at *Beck*)**
2. **Media and political discourse** often **amplify fears about immigration,** *leading* to **moral panics/folks devils by the police and discrimination against minorities. E.g. *9/11***
3. This globalised perception of risk **leads to stricter national border controls** and **increased international cooperation** in **tackling issues such as terrorism** and **drug trafficking**. = **Cicoruel** support this - ***the way we encourage certain criminals***
- *could also take in relation to how the media causes crime*
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lan Taylor - 'The Political Economy of
Crime'
| changes in crime across the globe
Globalisation has lead to an **changes in crime across the globe**:
* multinational corporations (TNCs) **moving across countries for profit**, as seen with **companies like Nike,** ***aligning*** with **left realism's view** of **marginalized** groups are **exploitation**.
- It has also enabled TNCs to **switch manufacturing to low-wage countries**, *increasing unemployment and temporary jobs*, which **left realist**s argue **leads to a reserve army of labour** due to **relative deprivation from obtaining consumer good**s, = **criminogenic capitalism**.
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Example of green crime - globalisation
The **Bhopal gas tragedy**- **gas leak at a factory in Bhopal;** in India, *resulted in thousands of deaths and long-term health effects for survivors; blindness, brain damage* etc
The **government** had **allowed** this because **India does not have enough skilled workers to enforce safety regulations**
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# Hobbs and Dunningham
Glocal organisations
**Hobbs and Dunningham** - globalization **influences** *how crime is organised,* creating a '**glocal**' system = **crime is *locally* based but with *global* connenctions**
They found that **although crimes have globally links** (*drug smugglin*) they still **depends on local setting**s (*where to sell drugs*)
**cheaper** to do so
However,
- It is not clear if such patterns of organisation are new, nor that the older ones have disappeared.
- Conclusions may not be generalisable to other non-drug related criminal activities elsewhere.
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# Glenny
McMafia
| globalisation
* **Glenny** introduces the term "McMafia" **to describe the relationship of criminal organisations with globalisation**, HIRED EX-COMMUNIST TO PROTECT THEM - particularly in post-communist **Russia and Eastern Europe.**
* With the fall of *communism*,(became *capitalist*) it **led to economic disorder**, = *everything had gone up, including food* - **prompting capitalists to turn to violent groups for protection/ selfish needs.**- the *KGP*'s = **individuals were left jobless so took their products overseas**
- This **including ex-convicts & these "McMafias" facilitated the movement of wealth out of the country.**
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Green crime- globalisation
- can be defined as crime **against the environment.**
- **Beck**~ the massive increase in technology have created new, **manufactured risks**.
- Many of these **risks involve harm to the environmen**t and its **consequences for humanity**, such as climate change
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# Situ and Emmons
Traditional + Green criminology - green crime
- **Situ and Emmons** define environmental crime as 'an unauthorised act or omission that violates the law'. If no law has been broken, they are not concerned.
- **Green criminology**:
- starts by focusing on **harm** rather than just **criminal law**.
- Since **laws vary between countrie**s, **what's considered harmful may differ**. - By **shifting away from a strict legal definition**, green criminology **gains a global perspective on environmental harm**, akin to **Marxist views where powerful interests dictate what constitutes unacceptable harm** to the environment. This known as ‘**zemiology’ = study of harm**
- Marxist says that **different laws globally makes exploitation easier**
Similar to eco centric views
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Two views of harm
- **Anthropocentric** - assumes that **humans** have the right to dominate nature to their own ends, and **puts economic growth before the environment** = **aligns with Marxists**
* **Ecocentric** - *humans and the environment* are ***interdependent*, so *environmental harm hurts humans too* = green criminologist adopts this view**
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Eco-Feminist view
- believe in an eco-centric view that particularly **women are interdependent with the environment**. (Reliant on each other)
- Environmental harm hurts humans too.
- Both the environment and humans are liable to exploitation, particularly by global capitalism.
- Eco-feminists ***believe that the earth is oppressed and exploited in the way women face patriarchy.***
- **Men are to blame for environmental harm**. **Women do not** harm the earth **due to their 'natural' and maternal instincts.**
**Links to how women are align with nature due to them being the bearers of children**
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# South
Types of green crime
**South** classifies green crime into two types:
- **Primary crime:** crimes **directly from the destruction of the earths resources** e.g. **deforestation, air pollution** etc
**Secondary crimes**- when governments **break their own regulations and cause environmental harm**. E.g. An example is **the dumping of hazardous waste** by **Trafigura** -> the company brought and **disposed of toxic waste in Africa,** when **it could have been safely deposited of in Europe, however it would have *cost* more.**
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# Potter
The victims of crime
- **Potter** suggests that current **social divisions are reinforced** by environmental harm, with the **least powerful being the most likely victims of green crimes**. He **also suggests 'environmental racism**'.
E.g. links to how the government **places second-class citizens** who are **culturally/materially deprived** into **higher polluted areas/environmental crime.** ***Ella Kissi-Deborah* 9yrs died from an asthma attack due to living in a highly polluted area**
- those **in developing countries** **face** far **greater exposure to environmental air**, water and land pollution **than those in the developed world. E.g. *Trafigura***
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Enforcement action against green crime
- Governments are mainly **responsible for creating and enforcing laws that control green crime**, = they form these policies in collaboration with businesses. **(Links to Marxist - ‘state and law-making’)**. This is a **problem** because it **enables the strengthening/legitimisation of capitalism ISA - Althusser**
- From a Marxist perspective, states **tend to pass** **laws against environmental harm** only **under public pressure or during crises**, as argued by **Snider**
- Environmental crimes, like other white-collar offenses, often lack the stigma of conventional crimes, and wealthy multinational companies can evade criminal labeling due to their power and legal resources, as noted by **Sutherland**
115
State crime
Refers to the **illegal or deviant activities perpetrated by the state**
116
McLaughlin - 4 **categories** of state crime
1 - **Political crimes** for example **corruption** - Mbasogo who is **the leader of Equatorial Guinea**, one of **the world's poorest countries**, but is **also paradoxically one of the world's wealthiest heads of state**, with an estimated net **worth of $600 million**. For perspective, Barack Obama has a net worth of about $11.8 million.
2 - **Crimes by security and police forces, such as genocide and torture** e.g. *Congo, Holocaust, etc*
3 - **Social and cultural crimes such as institutional racism** e.g. *George Floyd, Grenfell (putting second-class citizens in them areas)*
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Scale of state crime
| How are states able to commit crime on such a wide scale?
How are states able to commit crime on such a wide scale?
* **Able to conceal crimes**
* Able to a**void punishmen**t
- **Difficult for external authorities to intervene** - States are the supreme authority in their own borders
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# explaining state crime
The authoritarian personality
| ADORNO
- **ADORNO:** state crime was possible due to the presence of authoritian personality. He say that this personality type is ***a willingness to obey** **(regardless of the morality of the act).***
- They argue that the time of **WWII, many Germans had authroitarain perosnality types due to the *discipliarian socialisatio*n pattern that were common at the time**
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# KELMAN AND HAMILTON
the **social conditions** in modern society allow state crime
| explaining state crime - crimes of obedience
crime is usually defined as deviant from social norms, through conformity. **Many people obey authority even when it involves harming others. e.g. state crime such as genocide**.
features that produce state obdeiecne: (OBSERD THIS IN THE **VIETNAM WAR**)
2. 1. **Authorisation** - when **acts are ordered by those in authority**, normal moral principles are replaced by the duty to obey.
2. **Routinsation** - once the crime has been committed there is ***strong pressure to turn the act into routine*** which can **perform in a detached manner e.g. the mass murder of the Holocaust**.
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# COME BACK
Ways in which state crimes can be defined
- ***Domestic law***: Chambliss defines state crime as 'acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state officials in of their jobs as representatives of the state', however using state explanation of crime is **inadequate** - **ignores** the fact that **the state can manipulate the definition.** e.g. ***the Nazi Germany*** , **laws legalised racism/discriminastion. = links to the state and law-making + traditional criminology** - they are **subservient** to the state
- **Social harms + zemiology** = This recognises that **harm done by the state is not against the law.**
**MICHOLOSWKI** - defines state crimes as incuding not just illegal acts, but also illegaly permissible acts whose consequences are similar to those of illegal acts.
Links to green crimionlogy/ transgressive view = takes organic intellectuals
This definition prevents state from ruiling themeseleves 'out of court' by making laws that allows theme to misbehave
we should replace the study of crime with zemiology e.g.state faciliated poverty
critism: Harm definition is vague - what levels of crime should occur before an act is definied as a crime?
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# state crime
Cohen theory of neutralisation
| how it is possible/excuse it
* who identify 5 neutralisation techniques that delinquents use **to justify their deviant behaviour.**
* Cohen shows how states use the **same techniques when they are attempting to justify human rights violations;** this is some
1. **Denial of victims** – *they exaggerate, they are terrorists, desvre to die*
1. **Denial of responsibility** – **I was only obeying orders, doing my duty** (this **justification** is often used by individual policemen and death camp guards)
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# **Clarke** - crime prevention and control
Situational crime prevention - SCP
| Felson
- attempts to ***reduce*** **opportunities to commit crimes**, making it **more *difficult* to break the law in everyday situations.**
- An example of situational crime prevention is **designing out** certain features on **poorley designed enviornment that make crime *easier***.
- **Felson** observed **designing out measures** being **used in the New York Bus Terminal**. The ***bathroom areas were used for drug dealing, baggage thefts, rough sleeping, and sexual encounters***. The bathroom sinks were made smaller to **prevent homeless people from bathing in them.**
- **links** to **right realist**, **rational choice theery** = ***suggests that criminals commit crime for an intended purpose, which is also similar to neo-marxists with the act of a crime itself (form of political activism)***
- **this is effective in a way because it shows that if they do make it difficult to commit crime, then individuals are less likely to do it = removng its easy accessibility**
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critiscm of SCP
- SCP does not reduce crime, it just **displaces** it.
- if criminals are rational thinkers they will respond to target hardening by **moving to where targets are softer**
- **LEFT REALSIT** would say that SCP **disregards the route cause of crime.** crime is a **result of marginaisation**, SCP tends to **focus on opportunitic pretty crimes (performed by marginalised groups) and ignores white colar crim**e. They believe that we should place policies that who stop class inequalities
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# crime prevention
Environmental Crime Prevention
- Environmental crime prevention is **based** on **right realism, specifically Wilson and Kelling's 'Broken Windows' theory - such as grafitti, begging and vandalism. In some areas there is an absence on social control**.
- ***Zero tolerance policing (ZTP)*** is a form of environmental crime prevention where **even minor misdemeanours are treated the same as serious crimes in order to discourage them.**
- An example of the **0 tolerance policing** +
- Similarly, ***Antisocial Behaviour Orders (ASBOs)*** mean that people can potentially be **sent to jail for slight acts of deviance**.
- 0 tolerance is therefore **effective** = as they believe any broken window must be repsired to **improve social environments as well as the physical enviormnen**t = which **enables ideas of reaffirming boundaries** - Durkheim
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# use an an example
social and community crime prevention / Perry pre-school project
| ? de;ete
- The aim was to **remove** the **conditions which lead individual to crime** in the **first** place. They **seek to tasckle the *root* *cause* of offending**, **rather than simply *removing* *opportunities* for crime.**
- **The Perry Pre-school Project**: a community ***programmes aimed at reducing criminality***. In this **project low-income, high risk black student**s were involved.
- Longitudinal study showed **significant reduction in lifetime arrests** and **increase in high school graduation and employment.**
- **had a positive effect** for the **female** participant
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evaluation of social and community crime prevention
- They **disregard the crimes of the powerfu**l and **environmental crime**. The definition of crime problem **reflects** the **priorities of participant** and **agencies tasked with crime prevention**
- Links to **Marxists** ideas of **state and law-making** = **serves as a divisie function, which prevents a revolution.**
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# foucault 'discipline and punishment.' 2 types of power
1. sovereign power
2. Displinaray
| postmodern view of punishment
punishment has changed overtime
1. **brutal punishment**- refers to **dominant power or supreme authority** = ***monarch*** had **absolute power and control**
2. seeks to govern **the mind, body and soul** = essentially their **thoughts**/beleif = illustrates this in the **panopticon** = designed by betham -***This includes surveillance and monitoring***. - with a **view of rehabilitation**
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# postmodern view of punishment
Panoptican Effect
| Foucualt
- is **a displinary power** concept - design by **BENTHAM** meant **people had to behave at all times.** - we are ***constantly being watched e.g. by medicals, families, police etc***
* **therefore we self-police = self-surveillance + self- discipline**.
* Instead of punishment being a **public spectacle** that harms the **outside** of the body, it **takes place inside the prisoner.**
- The Panoptican effect **tragress into society** for example **through the corresponence principle** = **being monitored by following the hidden curriculum - subscounsiously** = **functionalist** would **say that we need to be controlled to preserve the status quo**.
- disciplinary power is **now spread throughout society**, ***affecting every institution and individual.*** The Panopticon, a***type of prison designed for constant surveillance,*** *mirrors* **how power works throughout society**.
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critsism of Foucault
| control is exaggerated
* The amount of **control is *exaggerated*** – ***Goffman*** notes that **inmates are able to *resist* controls.** = too **determinitisc,** **humans behave in ways that can be *outside* societal expectations**
* **CCTV** is **arguably a form of the Panopticon**, however people can be described as **desensitised** to **CCTV** and it **has little impact on their behaviour.** e.g. watched on her phones etc
* **Feminists** such as **Koskela** who criticise **CCTV** as an **extension of the ‘male gaze’.**
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Survelliance **after** Foucalt - late modern society.
1. **Surveillant Assemblages**:
- Haggerty argues that **modern surveillance** ***manipulates*** **digital data in cyberspace**, *unlike* Foucault’s panopticon which **focused on physical bodies.**
- For example, **CCTV** footage a**nalysed with facial recognition** creates a "**data double**" of the **monitored individua**l.
1. **labelling and surveillance**
2. **synoptic surveilliance**:
- Mathiesen's concept of the 'synopticon' in late modernity describes increased surveillance, **where everyone watches everyone**.
- Examples **include dashboard or helmet cameras** used by the public, **promoting self-discipline among road users,** and media surveillance of politicians, **which acts as social control by uncovering damaging information.**
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# function of punishment
functionalist perspective on punishment
- Through **rituals of orde**r, **punishment**, and **value consensus** of society is **rules are re-established**. Members **come together** to **feel a sense of *unity*.**
- **in order to prevent crime**, *we have to punish individuals*.
- **RETRIBUTIVE JUSTICE** - In pre-industrail society, **there was a strong sense of solidairty** amongst individuals. Therefore, punishment is ***primarily expressive*** - it **expresses sense of emotions of moral outrage** at the offence = aligns with **sovereign power (foucault)**
- THIS IS A J**USTIFICATION FOR PUNISHING CRIME**S, *RATHER* THAN **PREVENTING FUTURE CRIMES**. BASED ON THE IDEA THAT I**NDIVIDUALS DESERVE TO BE PUNISHED**
- links to **Braithwraites *disintergrative* shaming to r*eaffirms boundaries***
- **to enbale the status quo**/equilibrium
critism the of role of prison has changed
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# functions of punishment
marxist perepective on punishment
- The function of Punishment is to **maintain the existing social order**. It is thus a part of the **represseive state appartus**, = ***defends*** to **ruiling class againts the lower class through *systemicatically* *controlling* their actions,**
- The **form of punishment refelects** the **economic** **base** of society
- **rusche** argues that **each type of economy has its own corresponding penal system**. e.g. **prisoners 'do time' to 'pay' for their crime**.
- = this **protects the superstructure** through *punishiments and is a way of socialisation.*
- X: the role of prison has changed.n e.g. rehabilititaion
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Era of mass incarcentation and transcarntion
*Era of mass incarcention:*
- **Downes** argues that the **US prison system soaks up** about ***30-40%*** of the **unemployed** thereby **making capitalism look more successful**. = **individuals serve the *fasle calss consciousness*** by **removing the *unemployed* which *contributes* to the *dark figure of crime*.**
*TRANSCENATION:*
- This is when individuals **move between different controlling institutions** throughout their lives. **The boundaries between the *criminal justice system* and *welfare agencies* is blurred**.= links to **insitutionalisation** = where **individuals are *attached* to prision (see it as a *reward*)**
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who are the victims of crimes/ patterns
**Class** – poorest are more likely to be victims – ***marxist would say due to a crimineogenic capitalist society***, more **likely** to be **exploited and in the postion of poverty**, may *turn to gang. increases the likelihood of association of gang affilitation, more acces to dangerous activities*
**Age** – **younger** people are more likely to be victims but this can vary according to the crime committed. The young are likely to be **exploited and therfore vulnerable** = for **teens its harder for them to secur employment**, usually **work long unksilled hrs/ 0hr contracts,** so this result **in illegitamte means of achieving money**. ***increases the likelihood of victimisation joing by a gang***
**Ethnicity** – Ethnic minority groups are more likely to be victims of crime becasue they **experience high levels of poverty/exclusion**. They **are put into violent places in prision due to incarcentation.**
Similarly, **victimisation is due to margiansation**, e.g. ***Greenfeild***, the **citziens raised *issues* but was*dismissed/had no solution* to the infrastucture/well-being**. As ***a result they were exposed to harm***
**Gender** – Males are at greater risk than females of being victims of violent attacks but
**women are more likely to be victims of domestic violence**, **sexual assault and
trafficking.**
**Repeat victimisation** – Why are you more likely to be a victim of crime if you have
previously been a victim?
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The victims of crime - positivist victimology
- Focusing on **interpersonal (one-to-one) crimes of violence.**
- Identifying **victims who may have *contributed* to their *own* victimization**.
- Early positivist studies, like Von, aimed **to identify *characteristics* making individuals more *vulnerable* to victimization**, suggesting **victims might invite victimization *based on their characteristics* or *behaviors*. E.g. *elderly, disable people***
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Evaluation of positivist victimology
- this approach identify certain patterns of interpersonal victimisation, but **ignores** why the **structural factors influencing victimisation** such as **poverty and patriarch**y. There is **too much focus on personal looks**, for example, gender
- also **ignores situations** where **victims are unaware of their victimisation**, as ***some crimes against the environment***, and **where harm is done, but no law is broken**
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**Critical** victimology - 2 elements
1) ***Structural factors*** such as **patriarchy and poverty**, which **increase vulnerability to victimisation**, ***viewing victimisation*** as **a form of structural powerlessness.**
- **The state's power to apply or deny the label of victim**, highlighting how **victimhood is a *social construct*** similar to crime and criminality.
- **Walklate** argue that victimisation **reflects structural power imbalances**. = as with **many rape cases victims are often blame for their fat**e.
- Tombs argue that '**safety crimes**' are **often blamed on victims or dismissed, *denying* them official victim status.**
- This '**de-labelling**' **hides** the **true extent of victimization** = links with **Althusser reproduction/legitimisation** to class ***inequality***, **because the state denies them their victim status.**
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Evaluation of critical victimology
Critical victimology **disregards**, the ***role* victim may play in bringing victimisation on themselves through their *own* *choices***
= links to **Marxist ideas of RSA as *structural issues* of *capitalism* *causes* the *working-class to commit crime***
sociology
flashcards
Decks in class (8)
# Cards
