1
Q
Weber
action theories
A
- action theories see society as constructed by members’ interactions
- Weber’s social action theory believes social behaviour should be understood through the levels of meaning.
- Symbolic interactionism sees us as creating meanings through interactions in which we take the role of the other.
2
Q
social action theory
WEBER
A
WEBER
- He saw behaviour in terms of the meaning people attach to actions. = Interpretivist, so interested in qualitative methods
- Verstehen - the aim to understanding the meaning of motives and value.
“We must exercise ‘verstehen’”
- supports Gouldner - committed sociology = to make societal improvements
Weber identified four types of action associated with human behaviour:
2 of them is…
Value rational action - importance of the purpose of the action = links to religion: Calvinism =‘salvation panic’ = w/c needs to work hard for society to gain profit. We do things in a conscious way
Affectual action - action which expresses emotion, such as individuals state of minds = links to religion: New Christian Right movement - adopted absurd beliefs,
3
Q
Evaluation of weber social action theory
A
- SCHUTZ argues that this view is too individualistic and does not explain shared nature of meaning
- influence of society upon individual actions - peers, family etc can influence behaviour.
- cannot exercise verstehen because we cant be that person = cant truly understand their motives
Links to ethical issues of deception, imposition problem = leading questions.
4
Q
social action theories: PHENOMENOLOGY
Schutz - the study of phenomena
A
- Typifications - shared world of meaning:
- the meaning of an action depends on the context
E.G. Raising hand in class vs raising hand at an auction. - society is just the creation of our mind: based upon typifications of objects, activities and ideas that we experience in our lifeworld’s.
- The meaning we give to our actions + the association we give to our senses varies depending on the context - cultural dialogue differs
- if we do things in ways we dont expect - it goes against what we value. Differs from structural theory (mirco theory)
- Without typifications, social order would not be possible
natural attitude- our experiences lead us to believe the world is a natural thing based on shared meaning and experience = in summary we assume we have a fixed social system, however we undermine the interactions within that process.
5
Q
social action theories: PHENOMENOLOGY
Berger & Luckmann
A
- he agrees with SCHUTZ to focus on shared common sense knowlegde, however they rejct the view that society is merely inter-subjective reality(different opinions).
- although reality is socially constructed, once it has been constructed it takes a life of its own and becomes an external reality. = that we project in insitutions such as laws, schools
- takes a voluntaritic stance (concerned with free will)
- E.G. Religious ideas may start of in peoples mind but they become embodied in powerful societies structures such as churches which constrain us = becomes a collective consciousness.
- X: However, religion is a collective force.
6
Q
Ethmethodolgy -social action theory
GARFIKEL - how society/meanings are created?
A
Society is a social construction : social order is an illusion
Ethnomethodology is therefore different to interactionism because it does not focus on the effect of meanings, but instead how meanings were created in the first place.
Garfinkel believes in indexicality- nothing has a fixed meaning, it depends on the social context.
This supports atkinsons study of sudden death being classed as suicide.
He said that suicide is just a social construction of meaning.
E.G. a corpse is lifeless body until a meaning is attached = killed, murdered, natural death
This theory is a direct criticism of structural theories (marxist, functionalist,feminist) that advocates that we are agents of unconsciously abiding to normas and values
However, abiding by these rules is not inevitable = eventhough there is social order, people can choose to defy it. -links to marxism, but people can choose not to attain materialistic items.
7
Q
Evaluation of ethomodeolgy
A
- Ethnomethodologist findings are trival (pointless)
- There findings are not grounded enough/ evidence based. Not science based (unfalsiable - Popper)
- Their findings also doesnt solve anything like structural theorist does
8
Q
G.H. Mead
Symbolic interactionism
A
- We create the social world through our actions and interactions and give meaning through language and symbols.
- society is thought to be socially constructed through human interpretations.
- it explains social order and change
- this is a strength as they see individuals just as important as society
9
Q
Criticsm of symbolic interactions
A
- considered as supplemental (not a full theory = doesnt explains our behaviour) = focuses on face to face interactions and ignore the wider structures such as class inequality
- not all actions are meaningful, Weber’s category of traditional action/ value-action theory, much is performed uncousicously and may have little meaning for actors
10
Q
SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Labelling theory(Becker) / looking glass theory (cooley)
A
The two concepts that underpin this theory are:
Labelling Theory focuses on how the definitions (meanings) people impose on situations or on other people can have real consequence. If we attach a label to something, it will affect the way we act and has real-life consequences.
- For example, parents, teachers and the police generally have more power to make labels stick and make these labels have consequences compared to working class youths.
The looking glass self - self-concept comes from the ability to take the role of the other. This allows us to see ourselves as others see us. This leads to a self-fulfilling prophecy: we become as others see us. Our label becomes part of our self-concept (Cooley).
e.g. crime and the interactions with the police and behaviour that could change
11
Q
FUNCTIONALISM
Parsons organic anaolgy
A
Parsons identifies the similarities between society and a biological body:
SYSTEM
Organisms and societies are both self-regulating system of interrelated parts that fit together these are institutions (education system, government etc).
SYSTEM NEEDS
Organisms have needs (eg. nutrition), if these needs are not met, the organism will die. Functionalists see the social system as having basic needs (Eg. adequate socialisation) to maintain social order and survive.
FUNCTIONS
The function for any system is based on the contribution it makes to meeting the system needs, which ensures its survival.
12
Q
FUNCTIONALSIM
PARSONS value consensus
A
- we all share a value consensus through the adoption of norms and value (primary socialisation) from insistutions like our families.
- this is also achieved through shared culture & beliefs shared by members of society.
- social order is only possible if we conform to such norms and values
13
Q
Parsons the system needs
AGIL- How the organic analogy is supprted
A
Parsons outlines the AGIL schema, consisting of four basic societal needs:
- Adaptation
- Integration: Uniting various societal components to pursue common objectives, facilitated by institutions like religion, education, and media.= these are instruemntal needs according to parson
- Goal Attainment: Creating and sharing resources to reach societal goals is usually done by government bodies like Parliament. They make plans, like providing Free School Meals, to tackle social problems. Parsons calls these basic needs “instrumental.”
- latency:
14
Q
EVALUATING FUNCTIONALISM THEORY
A
- EXTERNAL CRITISM MARXIST: Creates more inequality within society and the workforce because if people don’t have the skills/qualification needed for work, they are therefore restricted to low paid work = could lead to negative labelling/ delinquent ‘subculture’
- Internal crique: MERTON: universal functioanlism- Parson assumes that everything in society has a positive process that never fails ? How does it fail in family/ education? = ignores the dysfunctional side
15
Q
Is Functionalism still relevant today?
A
deemed useful for understanding society on the grounds that it successfully demonstrates that social institutions are and dependent on one another
The idea that society is interdependent.
16
Q
functionalists
Consensus theories
A
- Society is basically harmonious
- Most people share basic beliefs = agreement (consensus)
- These ‘shared values’ create ‘social order’
- Our behaviour is ‘determined’ (shaped) by the culture of society – which we learn through ‘socialisation’
- Behaviour is regular/patterned and fairly predictable.
17
Q
Conflict theories
A
- This is a less optimistic approach.
- It views society as not being based on harmony but ‘conflict’.
- There is great inequality in society and certain groups benefit at the expense of others.
- The institutions of society mainly serve this powerful minority.
18
Q
Marxism theory
A
- Marxism is a structural conflict theory that rejects capitalism.
- In capitalism, the** bourgeoisie exploit the labour of the proletariat.**
- They maintain their position through control of the repressive state apparatus(althusser) and through hegemony = (gramsci)
19
Q
MARXIST
The superstructure & the base
A
- the bourgeoise control/maintains the base (society’s infrastructure) and therefore controls the superstructure of society
- The superstructure is the institutions and structures in society, such as (government, religion, education, and family). = This maintains and legitimises the base E.G. In family - Inheritance of property, ideological functions. RELIGION: calvinism, ‘spiritual gin’. EDUCATION through the hidem curriculum.
- the base = holds society together through the expolitation.
20
Q
Economic determinism
critices base/superstructure relationship
A
- they disregard that economic factors are the sole cause of everything in society, nincluding social change
- they argue that this fails to recongnise that humans have free will and can bring about change through their conscious actions
21
Q
Traditional Marxism: HISTORICAL MATERIALISM
A
- Materialism is the nucleus to human survival: it provides individuals with food, clothing and shelter.
- Each period of history, therefore, has its own unique set of characteristics.
- Such characteristics in a modern society can be identified as a division of labour that occurs between the bourgeoisie and the proletariat, who are the forces and relations of production make up society’s infrastructure.
- Links to base/superstruture
evolution of modern capitalsm
22
Q
TRADITIONAL MARXSIM: CLASS CONSCIOUSNESS
A
Marx argues because of the exploitative nature of capitalism, the proletariat develop their own economic and political interests in opposition this will in fluctuate a dictatorship of the proletariat, whereby they become aware of the need to overthrow capitalism.
In order to maintain social order, despite this ongoing conflict because the proletariat is in a state of false class consciousness - they do not realise they are being exploited by the ruling class.
23
Q
Traditional marxism - ideology
Ideology
A
- The dominant ideas in society are the ideas of the economically dominant class.
- the inisitutions that produce and spread ideas, such as religion, education and the media, all serve the dominant class by producing ideologies - set of beliefs that legitimises the existing social order
- ideolgies foster a false class concsciousness in the subordinate classes and helps to sustain class inequality.
- e.g. myth of meritocracy or commodity fetishism
24
Q
Humanistic Marxism
A
- links to interpretivist sociology
- humans have free will
GRAMSCI HUMANIST MARXISM
- Gramsci rejected economic determinism as an explanation of social change
- This can be seen in Gramsci’s concept of hegemony. Gramsci saw the ruling class maintaining its power over society in two ways:
- Coercion – it uses the police, prison and courts to force other classes to accept its rule
- Consent (hegemony) – it uses ideas and values to persuade the subordinate classes that its rule is legitimate
25
Gramsci - neo-marxists
- The proletariat have **dual consciousness**: The working class has two ways of thinking. They're not just influenced by the ideas of the wealthy, but also by their own living conditions = they are aware of their exploitation and are capable through the dominant ideology.
- he states that as long as society accepts ruling class hegemony there will not be a revolution. = we are currently accepting the hegemony through the superstructure.
- An example that challenges the way society function is through awareness of material conditions = Marcus Rashford FSM petition
- the working classes can only win this battle for ideas by producing their own **‘organic intellectuals**’ – by forming a body of workers who are class conscious and are able to project a credible, alternative vision of what society would look like under communism.
26
# Traditional
structural Marxism
| athusser
- Marxism **is a science that discovers laws that govern capitalism**
- links to ***positivist sociol***ogy
Marxism **sees capitalism governed by laws**, **individuals as passive**, and **society shaped by ideological and economic forces.**
27
critic of Althusser structuralist Marxism
- places too much emphasis on social structure
- too deterministic
28
Althusser divides the state into two apparatuses:
**The repressive state apparatuses **= RSA: these are institutions that will coerce the working class into complying with the will of the bourgeoises.
**The ideological state apparatus (ISA)** = insitutions that *ideologically manipulate* the working class into accepting capitalism as legitimate.
29
internal criticism
| (where a theory criticise the other within the same theory)
## Footnote
e.g. a functionalist vs a functionalist
- over emphasises the role of ideas and under-emphasises the rule of economic factors. E.G. workers may wish to overthrow capitalism but will be reluctant to do so due to fear of employment.
30
ways marxism is still relevant
- **Exploitation still lies** at the heart of the Capitalist system if you look at the practices of many Transnational Corporations.
- people sre **more individualised** and **many people are still under ideological control** – but **we don’t realise it.**
- ***Work is still Alienating for many people.***
- **Economic crises** are still inherent to the capitalist system and that in **recent years these crises have become more severe and more frequent.**e.g. cost of lving
31
LIBERAL FEMINISM - OAKLEY
* Women can achieve gender equality through reform: anti discrimination laws and policies.
**SEX & GENDER**
Oakley distinguishes between sex and gender:
- Sex- biological .
- Gender- socially constructed
- While sex is seen as fixed, gender differences varies between cultures over time.
- A role of women may be considered as proper for one culture but many be looked down from another e.g. a full-time housewife
- liberal feminist challenge the view of functionalist divison and suggest that women are equally as capable of performing both roles
32
Evaluation of liberal feminist
- **Marxist** feminist and **radical** feminist **says that liberal feminist fail to recongnise the undrlying cause** of **womens subordiation** and that **it is *naive* to believe that *chnages in law/attitutudes* is *enough to bring equality***.
- They believe **to overcome this, there needs to be a far-reaching, revonlutionary change.**
33
RADICAL FEMINISM - FIRESTONE
* PATRIARCHY
* The origins of women's patriarchy lie in women’s ***biological capacity*** and c**are for infants**, since **performing this role makes them dependent on males.**
* '**THE PERSONAL IS THE POLITICAL' = sexual politics**
* Radical feminists focus on the way in which **patriarchal power is exercised through personal relationships, often through physical or sexual violence.**
* **ACHIEVING WOMEN'S LIBERATION**
* ***Separatism*** - **living apart from men** and creating a new culture of female independence, free from patriarchy.
* ***Political lesbianism*** - **heterosexual relationships** are **‘sleeping with the enemy’** and therefore lesbianism is the only non-oppressive form of sexuality.
34
evaluation of radical feminism
- radical feminists **offer no explanation of why female subordination** takes **different forms in different societies.** it **assumes all women are in the same position and *ignores factors like class, gender, age between women*.**
- while **drawing attention to male violence againsts women**, **radical feminis neglects women's violence against men and violence within lesbian couplses**
35
MARXIST FEMINISM - BARRETT
* Marxist feminists **disagree with radical feminists** on the grounds that:
* **Capitalism** is t**he main cause** of women’s oppression **(not patriarchy).**
* They believe that women:
* Are provide cheap exploitable labour.
* Are a reserve army of labour.
* Reproduce the labour force.
* Absorb anger.
* **IDEOLOGY OF FAMILISM**
* **Barrett believes that it is because of our ideology** in society ***from birth that ‘brainwashes***’ women to **believe that the sexual division of labour** and their position **is natural and normal.** **The nuclear family is portrayed**
* **ACHIEVING WOMEN'S LIBERATION**
* **Overthrow capitalism**
36
evaluation of marxist feminsm
it **ignores** the **positive** experiences that some **women** have from being a **wife and mother in a nuclear family.**
- also **outdated**- very few families will fit **the traditional nuclear family structure today**- it **ignores** diversity and **dual- career families**.
37
# A.K.A poststructualist feminist
DIFFERENCE FEMINISM - BUTLER
Difference feminists do not see women as a single homogeneous groups - differences of class, ethnicity, sexuality etc. all lead to different experiences of patriarchy. Hence, they emphasise diversity.
Difference feminists argue previous feminist theory claim ‘false universality’: it claims to apply to all women, but in reality, it is only about the experiences of white, western, heterosexual, middle-class women
**ESSENTIALISM**
Difference feminists **criticise radical, liberal and Marxist feminists** for being essentialists, **whereby they see women as essentially the same and therefore f*ail to recognise diversity*.**
38
criticism of difference feminist
While this theory seem to offer a theorectical theory for recognising the diversity of women's xeperiences, it has some weakness
- Wably argues that women are **all faced with patriachy, e.g. women face a greater risk of low pay, domstic violnce and sexual assult**
- By **dividing feminism/seperating difference, this has an effect on *weakening feminism as a movement for change***
39
sociology as a science
- scientfic knowlgede is seen as superior to the other forms of knowldge because of its methods (lab experiements)
40
postivism = sociology **is** a science.
| COMTE
comte one of the founding fathers of sociology.
sociology should be *studied* in the **same way** as the **natural sciences.**
With science, it **explain how things *relate* to each other**, **using laws**. It is possible to **discover the causual laws** that control and **shape the behaviour of people in society.** through **scientific and value-free methods**. They **favour quantitative methods** and data, supporting the view that sociology is a science
Therefore, the main task of Sociology is to discover general laws of social development through:
Laws of co-existence - looking at the relationship between parts of society
**Laws of succession** - laws that *>govern social change**
with the natural world, **social behaviour** is *governed* by **underlying causal laws** and is **therefore predictable**- aims to uncover 'laws of society'
Can use **Durkheim to support** him
X: However, we **shouldn’t use scientific methods**, we should **focus on qualitative methods** = high in **reliability**. Can discuss **Douglas findings of the meaning of Suicide**.
41
sociololgy as a science
| DURKHIEM
* He chose to stufy **sucicde to show that sociology was a science** with its **own distinct subject matter**
* he believed sociology is a science because we **can study social facts as things to observe and measure** (eg. **suicide rate**)
* He found that the **rate of suicide was inversely proportional to the level of *social integration*** (in that those with **lower levels of social integration** are **more likely** to **commit suicide**
* using official statistics he **analysed the patterns of suicide rates** such as higher rates among Protestants compared to Catholics = due to the varying levels of social integration
* he concluded that sociology has its wsown subject matter - socisl facts and **these could be studied scientifically.**
42
interpretivism = sociology is not a science
| weber
* one of the founding fathers of sociology,
* Uses interpretivism to study s**ociology from a subjective (opinions) perspective.**
* This draws on the ideas of **verstehen** which means sociology requires a subjective **understanding opinions.** - **empathetic understanding** **plays a crucial role in understanding human action** and **social change**. According to him, **before *discovering the cause of action*, one needs to *figure out its meaning*.**
* Interpretivists argue that societies are **socially constructed** and shared by social groups.
However, s**cience is strongly objective** and could **not be considered a science**.
- **Goulner committed** sociology support this his argument
X: can use **EARLY POSITIVISTS** **Durkheim** to evaluate **SHOULD FOCUS ON BETTERING SOCIAL LIFE FOR ALL**, using **committed sociology is flawed** and we **need to ensure our values don’t *influence* the value of our findings - loose *credibility***
43
sociology is not a science
| POPPER
For sociology to be a science it must undergo a process of **falsification.**
- the idea that a statement **can be falsified by evidence- to prove it wrong**.
- However, **sociology cannot be a science because it cannot undergo falsification**, **due to how many sociological ideas** are too **abstract** to be tested.
- e.g. **Marxism states** that there will be a revolution to **overthrow capitalism** but **this revolution has not occurred due to false class consciousness** = **therefore** Marxism ***cannot be falsified as if this was to still happen then it would still correct***
- **OPEN TO 'SCRUNITY' CRITICISM AND TESTING BY OTHERS** ***POPPER***
- A goverened by the principle of **falsification** = where scientists **falsify** existing theories = can be **challenged**.
- ***nothing in science is sacred - or an absolute truth***
- scientist knowledge is **based on *cumalitaives*** = it **another theory REPLACES the OTHER**
2) MERTON **agrees** w ^
- The ***C*** UD***O*** ***S*** norms: (ACRONMYN HERE ARE SOME) - **science has grown**, shaped by:
- ***C* ommunism** – **scientific knowledge must be shared or knowledge cannot grow**
- ***O* rganised *S* cepticism – every idea is open to questioning and investigation**.
44
KUHN = sitting on the fence (in between ) on whether socio shouls be a science
- Science undergo **paradigmatic shifts**, ***leading to fundamental changes*** to ***unified perspectives in science***, typically ***through three stages: pre-science, normal science, and revolutionary science.***
- Kuhn argues that **sociology remains** in the ***pre-science*** stage **due to the lack of a *dominant* perspective and numerous competing theories,** ***making it pre-paradigmatic.***
- This **contrasts with natural sciences**, which are **seen as credible and factual.***
- He argues that science is **based on shared assumptions** called **paradigms**, which **develop over time**.
* *paradigms* **guides what scientists to see reality**, WHAT **METHODS/EQUIPMENT** to use
* therefore **normal** science is **puzzle solving** = **LAYS DOWN THE BROAD OUTLINES** - *think of it how we start with the corners with a puzzle*
* **Science rejects information that contradicts existing knowledge**, making it a ***socially constructed* understanding** = **based on *subjective* interpretations.**
* **supports** - interpretvists who argued that science is **socially contructed**
-
X: can use **postmodernist** to evaluates = ***as society developed in age science has lost its objectivity - topic of choice imposes values***
45
# Keat and Urry
The realist approach to science
| critices KUHN & POPPER
## Footnote
watch a video
- Realists emphasise **similarities between social and natural sciences.**
- Keat and Urry claim **that science is *not limited* to studying observable phenomena.**
- **Natural sciences**, for example, **deal with unobservable ideas** (such as *subatomic particles*) similarly ***to the way sociology deals with studying society and human actions*** - **also unobservable phenomena**. (**false class consciousness**)
46
postivist vs intepretivism
| value laden socio
- **Positivists** advocate for i**mproving society through objective scientific knowledge**, ***detached from researchers' values***.
* **Myrdal and Gouldber** suggest that w**hile sociologists should identify their values, *they can also take sides, supporting the interests of specific groups*.**
* **Interpretivists** argue that **sociology cannot be value-free due to the inherent *subjectivity* of research**
The sociologist's values are **influenced** by - **cannot be value free**:
- Choice of r**esearch topic**
- Choice of **method**
47
objectivity and values in sociology
| different perspectives
* Positivists believe **society could be improved through objective scientific knowledge**,***free from values of the researcher.***
* Interpretivists argue **it is impossible for sociology** to **be value-free** due to how **research is subjective and influenced by values in all aspects**.
48
# Comte and Durkheim
Early positivists
| objectivity & values
- Comte and Durkheim saw **socioloy as a science that aims to uncover social laws**
- Once these **laws were uncovered** sociologists **would be able to shape society and solve social problems leading to a better life for all.**
49
Weber & stages of research process
| objectivity and values
- Marx and Comte believed that ***science could tell us what values should be*** = however, ***Weber distinguishes between facts and value judgments***.
1. **Values guide research**: Researchers **choose areas of study based on their values,** e.g., ***feminists focusing on gender equality leading to studies on women's oppression.***
Areas where sociology can be value free:
2. **Data collection and hypothesis testing:** Objectivity is crucial in collecting facts; hypotheses should stand or fall solely on **observed facts without bias in data collectio**n.
50
3. modern positivists
| objectivity/values in socio
- **early positivist** were **committed to shaping society** through **their scientifc study of the world.**
- **Mordern** sociology **is different as they believe that we should be scientific but that our own values are objectiv**e = must ***be neutral as possible***
51
Commited sociology
| objectivity&values
## Footnote
value laden = something being influenced
- This is the idea that sciology should **not be value fre**e but should be ***committed*** to **specific values** and beliefs. E.G. F**eminist and marxis**t sociologist are intrested in supporting the most **disadvantaged in society** usually **take this approach = unsilencing the voice of the oppressed.**
* LIBERAL VIEW (**Becker**): Sociologists should **empathise with the oppressed**, such as **understanding how police disproportionately label working-class individuals as inherently more crimina**l = necessitating ***subjectivity*.**
* In opposition to **value freedom**, some argue that true **neutrality is impossible**, as research will always be **influenced** by **underlying values,** as seen in **feminist sociology, where research is inherently value-laden.**
52
The sociologist's values are influenced by:
| sociology as a science: factors impacting upon objectivity
1. **Funding of research**: that **research is dictated by whoever is funding it**. - **may question the *integrity* and *objectivity*** **of sociology ability to be scientific**
- **comte** argues that **we should employ scientific methods** when conduction reserarch as **it helps us claim scientific certanity** - for a better society
1. **Personal beleifs & intrests**: ***Gouldner*** (1968) **draws attention to the fact all researchers have their own intrests**, **opinion**, **biases** and preferences & as such can affect what is meant to be studied.
- **links to social policy**
53
Globalisation, Modernity & Postmodernity
| summary
- Postmodernists argue that these changes indicate the arrival of a postmodern society, which leaves society as unstable, fragmented and media-saturated.
- They **reject meta-narratives (a sub narrative) such as Marxism because there is no objective criteria to prove whether a theory is true.**
- However, ***Giddens*** believe **such changes are the result of a late-modern society, not a postmodern society.**
54
Mordern society
| evidence of a modern society
Characteristics:
* **capitalism**, =private owneeship
* **scientific thinking and technology**
* **meritorcacy** is also evidence **as tradition and abscribed status becomes less important.**.
* **indiviualsim**: we experience **personal freedom and define our own identity.**
55
Globalisation:
(the increasing interconnectedness of societies)
This is occurring because:
- **Economic changes** - *global networks* **encourage economic activity. e.g. TNC's**
- **New technologies** - thowever also c**reated risk such as globalisation**
- **Changes in culture and identity** - we **live in a global culture created by the media that has been westernised - makes it harder for to be isolated**
56
postmodernism
- A new society rich in **choice, freedom and diversity.**
- The postmodern world is characters by **sercularisation**
- **media saturated** - society has become more dominated by the power of digital information.
- THE ENLIGHTENMENT PROJECT:
In a post-modern society, the media create a **hyper-reality where signs appear more real than reality itself**, *leaving us unable to distinguish between reality and image.* =
**(BAURDRILLARD)**
57
evaluation of postmoderist
| marxists
* A **Marxist** might argue that postmodernists i**gnore the underlying power structures/ economic inequalities** present in society. = While **postmodernists emphasise cultural diversity**
* From a Marxist perspective, **not all people live solely through the media**, as socioeconomic f**actors, such as class and access to resources, significantly shape individuals' experiences** =*while media may plays a crucial role in shaping perceptions, it is not the sole determinant of people's lives.*
58
# society not as postmodern
LATE MODERNITY
| GIDDENS
* prefers ***the term late modernity as opposed to postmodernity***
* **Giddens** states that **tradition loses its grip on individuals,** they become increasingly ***1. reflexive*** (we are ***continually re-evaluating our ideas, nothing is fixed***)
* late modernity **encourage globalisation and rapid change**
- **2. Disembedding** - the **ability to interact with one another without having to make face-to-face contact.** - facetime, phinecalls etc
* factors **such as education, socialisation, and access to information** can d**epend on the degree to which individuals engage in reflective**
59
# society not as postmodern - i think
beck - risk society
* Today we are faced with **new maufactured (man-made)** risks than in the past e.g. **global warming, pollution** etc
* He **agrees** with **Giddens** about the **growth of individualism - we *constantly in the need to reflect on our action*s (he calls it r*eflexive modernisation*).**
* As a result, **risk consciousness becomes *more aware of percieved risks and seek to avoid/minimise them*.**
60
postmodernists argue the metanarratives are less useful for explaining how society works today + 'MYTH OF TRUTH'
| lyotard
- **lyotard** argues that **society** is **changing so rapidly and has become so complicated** that **society can no longer be understood by other theories** a***s they are metanarrative***
- society has **become too fragmented and chaotic** with **people no longer believing in the '*myth of truth*'** and **instead feeling doubt and uncertainty**, so ***society should not try to be explained as a whole.***
61
Marxist theories of postmodernity
| Flexible accumulation
- Marxists offer a **different analysis of postmodernity to Baudrillard**, marxists = **to understand postmodernity, *we must examine its relationship to capitalism*.**
- **FLEXIBLE ACCUMULATION**: The crisis meant that **a new way of ACCUMALATING profits had to be created**. **Technology developed** which **allowed** firms **to communicate efficiently;** **workers** had to **become more flexible to meet employers needs**. These c**hanges brought about the common characteristics of postmodernity** – e.g **niche markets promoted cultural diversity.**
- Flexible accumulation also **turned leisure, culture and identity into commodities.**
- **Harvey** argues that this more developed **capitalism has led to the compression of time and space**. **For example, The birth of holiday/travel agencies** has meant p**eople can travel anywhere in the world with a couple of transactions** and a passport. *Time has been compressed*. **Harvey argues capitalism has been able to shrink the globe**.
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# postmodernist
Baudillard - 'sign-objects' + Death of the social
*sign objects*:
- Baudrillard argues that **objects have meanings for us** – we **don’t buy objects for their functional use, but because they signify that we are successful.**
- **Consumer goods and leisure activities** are ‘***sign-objects***’ – **we consume *the image they offer* rather than the object.**
- people now **have closer relationships with their consumer lifestyles** e.g. **food, not to statisfy hunger**
- this is **signs simulacra**, which situations are a **hyperreality (sign appear more real that reality itself.)**
*death of the social*:
- **People now live ISOLATED LIVES** *sharing* **common consumption of the media**
- we now **live in a hyperreal** - ***media reality becomes our new reality***
- disorted, fragmented etc
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social policy
- **social problems** involves form of behaviour, situation or conditions which are defiend as undesirable i.e. r**acism (distcrimation act) or educational underachievements (Bursary, FSM, EMA etc)**
- social policies **simply address social problems and try to eradicate them** = often informed by sociological research.
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sociology understanding and social policy
E.G. Family (Palmer) asserst **childhood has become toxic** largely **as a result of exposure to indecnt content online.** Things like, **exposure to film/video game which is not appropriate for viewers of a certain age.**
Ways that they can rectify this issue is:
- **Paternity leave:** with **more parental control** for internet **access** this ensure the **children will be looked after and increases the rise in the new man.**
- **Equal pay act**: both **parents have enough money** to ensure their c**hildren have age restricted content. = also increases the rise in neoconventional famil.**
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usefulness of social action theories
- explain the diverse **range of actions and behaviours that are displayed in society**
- Application to contemporary society **allows us to understand why people reject the ideas of institutions such as education, politics and family.**
- allows **for the different perspective of individuals to be heard**, *rather* than **assuming that everybody is the same** - particularly **relevant to contemporary society with greater diversity and choices.**
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Strengths and weaknesses of both ethnomethodoly and phenomenology
Strengths
- **shows how meaning is created/negotiated**
- shows **how social construction** of **meanings can have consequences on individuals**
Weakness
- **ignores** the **structures in society**
- a **meta-narrative**
- **doesn’t explain motivations**
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Qualitative methods strengths and weakness
Advantages:
- **rapport** = allows interviewer to develop a relationship
- **flexible**: not contained to a fix set of questions
- **valid**= people are more truthful
Weakness
- ***impractical***: **time consuming** & may have a **small group**, **needs impersonal skills**
- **unrepresentative** = **due to small group data cannot be obtained to a wider population**
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positivism + quantitative methods
- They utilise quantitative data to **uncover and explain social patterns, favoring methods like experiments, questionnaires, structured interview**s, and analysis of official statistics.
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Theoretical perspective on research methods
See notion
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Interpretivist on research
- Interpretivists aim to **uncover the *meanings behind human actions* to understand social reality.**
- They **prioritise validity,** **seeking an authentic portrayal** of how i**ndividuals construct and experience truth.**
- Interpretivists **reject questionnaires due to their detachment from respondents and inability to capture nuanced meanings.**
- Questionnaires **lack contact** between researcher and respondent, **hindering clarification and understanding of answers.**
- **Observation** is favored by interpretivists as it **allows direct insight into people's actions, avoiding reliance on self-reported information.**
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Feminism on structured interviews
- Many feminists **reject structured interviews** and **questionnaires**, criticising them **as exploitative and reflective of patriarchal society**.
- They argue that **these methods perpetuate unequal power dynamics**, with researchers taking an active role and subjects being passive objects of study.
- Feminists liken this approach to "**research as rape**," where r**esearchers intrude into subjects' lives without offering reciprocity.**
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Official statistics practical disadvantages
- Government statistics **may not align with sociologists' interests, leading to a lack of data on specific topics like race, religion, or ethnicity.**
- **Mismatches between different statistics** can occur, **making it challenging to establish precise correlations** between variables
- Some statistics, **may not provide up-to-date insights into current social trends.**
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# labels
Interpretivism and statistics
- Interpretivists, like *Cicourel*, **challenge the positivist notion that official statistics represent *objective social facts***, arguing **instead that they are social constructs shaped by the labels officials attach to people.**
- For interpretivists, official statistics on topics l**ike mental illness** are **not true measures of the actual prevalence of the condition** but **rather reflections of the decisions made by doctors to label individuals.**
- **do not explain the meanings behind changes in behaviour**, and **therefore may only show a partial reality.** - they just label and stereotype, rather giving than accurate representations
- Interpretivists **advocate** for studying how official statistics are **socially constructed,** emphasizing **the importance of understanding the underlying processes** *rather than accepting statistics at face value*
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Marxism and statistics
- Marxists, *like interpretivists*, **dispute** the **positivist belief** in the **objectivity of official statistics.**
- they believe its **constructed to uphold and protect the ruling class ideology**.
- Official statistics **protect the interests of the powerful and wealthy** and are **therefore distorted reflections of society**.
- e.g. '**working-class crimes**' such as **theft and vandalism** are **over-reported** and **targeted** in official statistics, **portraying the working class as *criminals***
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If Question was about functionalist usefulness in society
Here’s how to form it
Point 1:
- Discuss how functionalist advocates for a harmonious society
- Then Discuss (Parsons) ideas organic analogy: how different institutions works together and are interdependent - same way how. The organs in the body needs to work together.
- how the organic analogy is supported is through one of the AGIL scheme {chose one} e.g. particular goal attainment = this particular part helps to ensure harmonious society.
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Mead + Blumer
Summary
1) **symbolic interactions** - ***small scale perspectives*** of the **interaction between individual**
2) it **explains individuals in society & interactions with others**
3) Meads teaching discusses about the **development of the individual as a social product.** *(Through construction i.e. the family, influence of others).*
sociology
flashcards
Decks in class (8)
# Cards
