1
Q
instrumental value
A
respecting nature for promoting human needs or well-being
2
Q
Non instrumental value
A
nature is valued for itself, not for something other than itself
3
Q
moral standing
A
the right to be treated with respect
4
Q
how can something have intrinsic value but not moral standing?
A
to have moral standing is to have rights, so we must treat them in certain ways. The argument is if nature has moral standing or if it does not
5
Q
what are the scales of moral standing?
A
- all species on earth (plants are alive)
- all animal life (animals that are aware of their existence)
- higher animal life (animals that feel things)
- human life
6
Q
how are humans viewed on the scale of moral standing?
A
humans are viewed as the moral agents because we are self-conscious and have principles and feelings.
7
Q
what is anthropocentrism?
A
the belief that only humans have moral standing
8
Q
what is weak anthropocentrism?
A
nonhuman things have intrinsic value and deserve respect
9
Q
what is strong anthropocentrism?
A
nonhuman things are primarily instrumental
10
Q
what is Non anthropocentrism?
A
argues that other things beyond humans have moral standing
11
Q
what do zoo centrists believe?
A
that the ability to feel pleasure and pain is the main criteria for something having moral standing
12
Q
what are bio centrists?
A
moral standing extends to all living things and thus everything deserves respect
13
Q
what is ecocentrism?
A
the idea that moral standing goes beyond just single species but rather whole ecosystems
14
Q
what influences the western views of nature and how do they view nature?
A
religion plays a big role in western societies and from the very beginning, viewed the environment as alien or scary
15
Q
how did western societies structure their communities?
A
since wilderness was the opposite of paradise within many holy books, the idea of good land was ordered, and maintained
16
Q
when did thoughts of nature begin to switch?
A
during the Renaissance
17
Q
who is John Stuart Mill?
A
the godson of founder of Utilitarianism, which is seeking the greatest happiness for the greatest people.
18
Q
what is Utilitarianism?
A
the idea that “good” is pleasure and “bad” is pain. Happiness is the end goal and is worthy.
19
Q
how did John Stuart Mill view nature?
A
he viewed nature in a negative light, said that nature is meant to be dominated by humans and that the idea of nature without human interference is absurd
20
Q
how did Ralph Waldo Emerson view nature?
A
viewed nature in a positive light and that nature was beauty and invokes childlike wonder.
21
Q
what is Emerson’s transparent eyeball theory?
A
the idea that nature can be seen as divinity and how there’s different levels to view nature and to appreciate nature
22
Q
what are the levels of the transparent eyeball theory?
A
- nature as commodity- what we use from nature
- nature as beauty- see nature as beautiful on its own
- nature as spirit- the presence of a higher power to explain perfection of nature
23
Q
what is virtue ethics?
A
developed by Aristotle, it states that importance of developing good traits lead to a moral and fulfilled life
24
Q
what is deontology?
A
discovered by Kant, says that actions are judged based on whether they fulfill moral duties (ex. lying is a moral duty regardless of outcome)
25
what are the divisions of philosophy?
1. metaphysics- science of reality
2. epistemology- science of knowledge
3. ethics/moral philosophy- what should I do about this?
4. Aesthetics- how can I enjoy this?
26
what are ethical rules?
rules that should be obeyed under any circumstance
27
what are ethical principles?
advocate principles that have a track record of being advisable, they carry weight but not expectation of being followed
28
does Schmidt believe in ethical rules or principles?
he believes in ethical principles, there is always another way and when presented with a challenge then look for principles not rules
29
what is the challenge of moral deliberation?
the challenge is to consider ethical theories while considering the context of a situation and the complexity of balancing both
30
what is Mill's argument for "living naturally"?
says that living naturally is absurd and that any human involvement can "ruin" nature
31
what is Mill's relation on art and nature?
believes that art and nature are both expressions of creativity, but argues that nature is not a being but rather a combination of all phenomena and causes.
32
American transcendentalism’s appropriation of Kant for Emerson?
Emerson took after Kant's idea of aesthetic of beauty and uses that to connect art to nature instead of Kant rejecting the two.
33
how did Emerson view property boundaries?
he believed that private property fail the eye to see an integrated system.
34
what is the American Conservation Movement?
a progressive era of the reform era beginning with the formation of Yellowstone
35
what were the three goals to the American Conservation Movement?
1. develop natural resources
2. prevent waste
3. preserve nature for the common good
36
what are Pinchot's views on American Conservation Movement?
he believed that conservation of nature resources are better for the majority of people, calling on Mill's belief of the greatest number of people happy.
37
what is ecology?
ecology is not human focused, but rather studies relationship between organisms and their environment
38
what is Leopold's definition of Ethical Community?
the individual is a member of a community of independent parts
39
what is the land ethic theory?
that we extend the boundaries of the community to include plants, soils, animals, and land
40
what does the land ethic theory do the role of humans?
it changes the role of humans to conqueror to a member of a community
41
what is Leopold's land pyramid theory?
each successive layer depends on the layer below it for survival and how everything is interconnected. Shake things at the bottom too much, and we effect the top level (us)
42
what is Leopold's critique on conservation?
that land ethic is good, but conservation practices are adopted still as a way of economic growth. Nature is viewed as a commodity and thus conservational practices are adopted that are also profitable.
43
what is Leopold's view on land ethic?
think about what is ethically and aesthetically right and not just right for economic growth. Land must be respected for what it is not what it can provide
44
what is the history of environmental modification?
that environmental modification has always been with us, but has been accelerated which raises concern for ecology of nature
45
what is the historic divide between science and technology?
science is theory and technology was for low income and empirical. Both have evolved alongside each other but not together.
46
what is the significance of the heavy plow?
the significance is that the heavy plow was a way of farming that changed the way humans felt about the environment. Nature previously humbled humans, now humans mastered nature.
47
what is the role of religion in the connection of science and technology?
it combined the two in that saying that humans don't need either and instead we adopt a new religion. To save nature is to adopt a new religion.
48
what was the alternative view on religion given by Assisi?
referred as a radical in Christianity and thought that humans are not masters of nature, but a part of nature.
49
what is Carson's belief on chemical pollution?
chemical pollution is most dangerous, passing on the chain of poison within other living things causing death.
50
what is the danger of "Biocides"?
so called "spectracides" that kill every insect, bird, fish, and plant. Killing everything when intended result is only a few weeds or insects.
51
what is "optimal pollution"?
from William Baxter, says that we should tolerate chemicals as long as it doesn't harm humans or other living things that have economic value to us.
52
what is Carson's view on Optimal Pollution?
saying we should not tolerate a slew of weak poisons on our planet and that no one should live in a world that is not "quite fatal"
53
what is the difference between biological and chemical solutions?
biological solutions are alternatives to crop management that rely on organisms that we know about already and chemical solutions are using chemicals to manage crops.
54
what is the social contract theory?
the relationship between the govern and the governed and how the government should run
55
what are Hobbes views on state of nature?
state of nature is before all government and where there is no right or wrong. there is no winner in nature and the remedy for this is a monarch figure.
56
what are Locke's views on the state of nature?
believes that sovereign is too extreme and that in the absence of human law, God's will can come in to show us what to do.
57
what is Hume's ethic of sediment?
Hume agreed with Locke's views until the fact that God will show us how to act. Hume believes that sympathy drives humans.
58
what was Smith's critique and solution to Hume's ethic of sediment?
believed sympathy doesn't drive humans, but money does. Capitalism is the solution. In a buyer-seller action, kindness does not matter.
59
what are the laws of supply and demand?
when demand is low compared to supply, price goes down. When demand is high compared to supply, price goes up.
60
why does Smith believe Capitalism is a rising tide that lifts all boats?
if someone is only interested in their own gain for the benefit of others, capitalism will only lift everyone in society
61
what are "the commons"?
common land shared among others for multiple purposes
62
what is Hardin's tragedy of the commons?
people acting in their own self interest eventually deplete a resource or destroy land or the commons shared among people.
63
what are the positive and negative utilities of the tragedy of the commons?
people weighing outcomes of the positive benefit for them and the negative benefit (outcome) and how people go with the positive outcome for themselves
64
what is a real life example of the tragedy of the commons?
the oceans, people decide if littering is okay and decide that one piece of trash won't affect that much. Leading to the degrading of the ocean
65
why does appealing to conscience not work for addressing the tragedy of the commons?
people only hear that if you don't do as we ask, then we will condemn you or shame you.
66
what is Hardin's appeal to administrative law to addressing the tragedy of the commons?
a watch dog that looks over protecting the commons and how there should be fines to make sure that pollution is prevented
67
why do private owners have higher incentive to promote environmental protection than governments?
private owners have economic incentive to minimize waste, government does not
68
how does Pennington view free market environmentalism?
he believes that independent markets have higher incentive to not degrade the land
69
two reasons why “green communitarians”
promote government regulation?
-greedy self interest from private owners will spoil the environment
-humans need a community and look out for one another
70
why is Hayek qualified to address communitarian challenges?
Because Hayek shares some of the core values and beliefs of communitarians which is that humans are social beings
71
what is Hayek's "true individual"?
an inherently social being that acquire many beliefs from emulating others
72
what is Hayek's reason for not being able to plan the common good?
humans cannot make rational decisions and society is too spontaneously ordered and there is not enough information to make a decision for a group of people
73
how does capitalistic privatization promote common good?
it is self-regulating and price fluctuations promote what is good for a community
74
why are property and environment seen as opposites?
because environments are too expansive to be owned by any individual. This can be problematic though as since no one owns it, no one protects it
75
what are the pros and cons of "command and control" government regulation?
pro- capable of handling smaller issues
con- limited effectiveness and are inadequate to handling climate change
76
what are two successful examples of government-industry partnerships helping the environment?
1. conservation easement
2. energy credits
77
what is property regime?
social agreements on how to preserve individual rights
78
what does Rose believe?
a middle ground between privatization and government control
79
why are property regimes hard to start?
because all individuals could not agree on a single thing and may not be able to adapt to changing circumstances
80
why are property regimes hard to stay effective?
government support may be inefficient and informal property regimes may be indifferent to the environment
81
why do property regimes find it hard to care about protecting the environment?
its efficiency may lead to degradation instead of conservation of environment
82
what challenges do property regimes face with overcoming the opposition of environment and property?
property ownership often means to use up a resource and a key aspect of property rights is that they are tradable, most resources aren't readily tradable.
83
how do property regimes find the threat of biodiversity loss from monoculture difficult?
specialization in a property regime may promote monoculture
84
what is Rose's assessment to the obstacles of property regimes with regard to climate change?
-participants may not be able to form a property regime on climate change
-even if created, property regime may be ineffective
-even if effective, property regime may not help the environment
-the opposition of property and climate change
- market monoculture threatens climate control
85
what is Taylor's view on anthropocentrism and biocentrism?
that respect for nature while embracing biocentric views is inherently human focused on our well-being and further our growth.
86
what does Taylor believe about what is good for any being or environment?
that "good" is what good it does for the community or being, and "bad" is detrimental to community or being
87
what does Taylor believe is inherent worth of an individual?
inherent worth involves moral consideration and intrinsic value
88
what does Taylor believe?
that humans are not masters of nature, but rather a factor in it. Had a holistic view on ecosystems and how they are connected. Every species inherently pursues its own good.
89
what is species egalitarianism?
that all species have equal moral standing and deserve respect
90
how does Schmidtz view nonhuman things?
in a primarily species egalitarianism view
91
what is Singer's criteria for animal rights and how this makes him a closet speciesist in Schmidtz eyes
the criteria is "can they suffer?" and to Schmidtz this is favoring sentient animals over all animals.
92
what does Hill believe about nature?
believes in Aristotle's view of virtue ethics and how traits build character
93
how does Hill define and justify the definition of good?
he defines good as a indefinable property and justifies this by saying that we as humans see what is right and wrong, like hitting a puppy.
94
what are criticisms to Hill's definition of good?
- dangerous because everyone has a different opinion of what is good
- good cannot be seen or tested so it absurd to say that humans can see what is good.
95
what does hill mean by willful indifference?
people who destroy the environment are short-sighted and are lacking the traits that should develop to care about the environment
96
what does hill mean by elitist self-importance?
appreciation of nature implies a humbling experience and anyone who is selfish cannot appriciate nature
97
what does hill mean by lack of self-acceptance?
not being able to understand or accept your role in nature and feeling a lack of acceptance
98
what does hill mean by lack of gratitude?
we cannot appreciate nature while not expressing our gratitude for its beauty.
