1
Q
Client’s right to control the direction of their life
A
Autonomy
2
Q
Avoiding actions that could cause harm
A
Nonmaleficence
3
Q
Working in the best interest of the client and society
A
Beneficence
4
Q
Treating all clients equally
A
Justice
5
Q
Honoring your commitments and being trustworthy
A
Fidelity
6
Q
Being truthful and honest
A
Veracity
7
Q
Belief that everyone should be treated equally, with no exceptions to the rule; if one client is treated with respect, all are
A
Deontological Ethics (Immanuel Kant)
8
Q
Belief in doing the most good for the highest number of people; if institutionalizing one client would prevent possible harm to others, do it
A
Utilitarianism (John Mill)
9
Q
First professional counseling association (1913)
A
The National Vocational Guidance Association
10
Q
One provider paying another provider for referrals
A
Fee Splitting (unethical)
11
Q
Client exchanging goods/services for professional services
A
Bartering (only ethical if client brings it up and if no risk of harm or exploitation)
12
Q
Working for a school or agency and referring those clients to your own private practice
A
Self-referral (usually unethical)
13
Q
Most ethical dilemmas are related to?
A
Confidentiality
14
Q
Exceptions to maintaining confidentiality?
A
Client is a harm to themselves or others, client is a minor, elder/child abuse, supervision, legal or colleague consultation, clerical workers in charge of client paperwork, client opens malpractice lawsuit against counselor, client/court orders ROI
15
Q
Legal case that determined counselors have a duty to warn if client poses a threat to themselves/others
A
Tarasoff v. Board of Regents of the University of California
16
Q
First state to license counselors (1976)
A
Virginia!
17
Q
A licensed therapist can become licensed in another state
A
Portability
18
Q
When one state/organization accepts a counselors’ license/certification from another state/organization
A
Reciprocity
19
Q
Submitting a journal article to more than one journal simultaneously; cannot resubmit your article once a publisher has already published it without that publisher’s permission
A
Multiple Submissions (unethical)
20
Q
System of classification (ex. DSM, ICD)
A
Nosology
21
Q
Consulting style focused on helping the client, such as consultant suggesting a technique for client to use
A
Client-centered consultation
22
Q
Consulting style focused on helping the consultee improve their clinical skills
A
Consultee-centered consultation
23
Q
Consulting style focused on helping consultee improve their administrative skills (ex. public speaking)
A
Consultee-Centered Administrative Consultation
24
Q
Consulting style focused on improving a program
A
Program-Centered Administrative Consultation
25
Consultation model where consultant (dr.) is seen as the expert coming in to diagnose the problem and prescribe a solution; prioritizes Content (focus on the problem and fixing it) over Process (what's happening from a communication standpoint)
Edgar Schein's Doctor-Patient Model
26
Leading causes of malpractice lawsuits against therapists?
Issues with confidentiality and dual relationships
27
Counseling was first conceptualized as a psychological field instead of simple guidance after the publication of?
The Workbook in Vocations by William Proctor in 1931
28
The first counselors were?
Deans and advisors in colleges during the Civil War
29
The major trend that impacted the counseling movement in the 1980s?
An emphasis on professionalism, certification and licensing; resulting in counseling becoming it's own distinct field
30
The group movement began when?
1960s
31
One of the primary problems of the 1960s?
Counselors focused too much on intrapsychic process (within one's mind) and not enough on the impacts of the Vietnam war, women's issues and civil rights
32
The National Defense Education Act (NDEA) did what?
Provided federal aid for graduate education in counseling and expanded school guidance services
33
The Family Educational Rights & Privacy Act of 1974 (FERPA) aka the Buckley Amendment allows what?
Protects individual privacy and the parents of students under 18 and the students themselves (if 18+) can access their educational records (DOES NOT pertain to clinical records!)
34
Health Insurance Portability & Accountability Act (HIPAA) (1996)
protects people's privacy (medical and psychological records); patients have access to their records and power to decide who else does too
35
The official Counseling Academic & Professional Honor Society
Chi Sigma Iota (1985)
36
TRICARE
Allows active and retired military members and their families to get counseling services through TRICARE without seeing a PCP/getting referral first
37
Reimburse client directly after client pays for a service (fee-for-service)
Indemnity Plans
38
PPOs vs. HMOs
PPOs: higher monthly premiums, can see in-and-out of network providers, no referrals needed
HMOS: lower monthly premiums, restricted to in-network providers only, referrals needed
39
Policy that provides protection against negligent acts and omission (forgetting to ice your walkway outside your office resulting in client getting hurt)
Liability Insurance
40
Provides protection against injurious conduct by therapist when acting within their professional capacity (misdiagnosis, incorrect treatment)
Malpractice Insurance
41
What 3 things need to happen for a malpractice lawsuit to hold up in court?
1. Client must have suffered physical/psychological harm
2. Injury must be the result of a breach in conduct
3. There must be a breach in conduct
42
What situations would a Transfer Plan apply?
When T has become disabled, died, closed their practice/moved to another state
*Transfer Plans should be included in Informed Consent at the start of tx
*Allow client access to their records, must include contact person
43
Therapists are NOT required to contact client's PCP
True!
*still, stating in one's IC asking client for permission to such disclosure is best (also a good marketing strategy for PP)
44
In PP, what is the most important detail when filing claims?
the National Provider Identification (NPI) number
45
Per ACA, T can refrain from making a dx if they believe a dx could harm the client or others
True!
46
Advantages of Web Counseling?
1. Increased accessibility (good for disabled clients)
2. Some clients find it less intrusive on their privacy, therefore sharing more
3. T can share electronic files and links quickly
47
Disadvantages of Web Counseling?
1. Certification/Licensing issues if seeing client in different state
2. Can be hard to establish healthy therapeutic alliance online
3. Client's can hide their identity
4. Limits to confidentiality
5. Cultural/geographical differences can be missed (a natural disaster felt by client in different state may not be felt by T)
6. Not everyone can afford internet
48
What are the steps in Research Process?
1. Problem identification (literature review)
2. Hypothesis formulation
3. Operationalization
4. Choose relevant study design
49
Subjective vs. Objective Data
Subjective (Qualitative)
- is verbally expressed or written graphically
- depends on the researcher's interpretation
- includes norm and ordinal data
- time-consuming to collect & not highly generalizable
- ex. gender, eye color, happiness rating
Objective (Quanitative)
- expressed numerically & can be measured/verified (close-ended questions, statistical analysis)
- includes interval and ratio data
- highly generalizable
- ex. height, weight, age, test scores, income
50
Correlation doesn't equal causation!
Just because two variables move together, doesn't mean one causes changes in the other; true causation requires controlled experiments!
51
Research design used when little to nothing is known about a topic; meant to formulate hypotheses and research questions
Exploratory Research Design
52
Research design meant to expand upon exploratory research; aims to describe the characteristics of a population WITHOUT manipulating the variables
Descriptive Survey Design
53
Research design meant to establish cause & effect relationships by manipulating the IV and measuring the DV, usually with a control group for comparison and random assignment; produces the most valuable research
Experimental Research Design
54
What is Kurt Lewin's Action Research
Action research expands our knowledge on a topic but also expands our understanding on how it can be applied in practice
55
What are single-subject designs (n=1)
Only study one subject at a time, first popularized by Freud, low generalizability, popular with behaviorists who seek measurable changes.
1. A-B Design
Begin with baseline (A), introduce intervention (B), collect data to see if a change occurs. Cannot infer causation
2. A-B-A Design
Removes the intervention to return to baseline, therefore producing an experimental design however questions ethics of removing intervention (ex. client not on diet, then starts diet, then ends diet)
3. A-B-A-B Design
Reintroduces intervention. If reintroducing the intervention produces results similar to the first intervention phase, it is more likely that the intervention (IV) is causes changes in the DV (stronger inferences of causality can be made!)
4. B-A-B Design
Begins and ends with the intervention; good for crisis situations
56
Method where all subjects have an equal chance of being selected for a research study
Simple Random Sampling
57
Method where subjects are divided into strata (based on special characteristics like age or income) and then uses simple random sampling to select subjects
Stratified Random Sampling
58
Method that uses geographically/naturally occurring groups (ex. all people in a state or all schools in a state) that are divided in groups (clusters) and then randomly sampled
Cluster sampling
59
Randomly choosing a number between one and 10, then selecting the nth name from a list
Systematic Random Sampling
60
Explain the Categories of Measurement
1. Nominal Data- when there are two categorical variables (mom/dad, pass/fail)
2. Ordinal Data- when there is a hierarchy and the distance between the variables isn't equal (ranked data, SES, Likert scales)
*both nominal and ordinal are qualitative and used in non-parametric tests!
3. Interval Data- when there is a hierarchy and the distance between the variables is equal but no true zero (IQ tests, 88 cents to 89 cents is the same as $1 to $2)
4. Ratio Data- true zero, one variable divided by another (bank account, weight)
*both interval and ratio are quanitative and used in parametric tests!
61
Mathematically derived values that describe the data set (mean, median, mode, range, SD)
Descriptive Stats
62
Uses the data to make predictions or inferences about the larger population (F-test, t-test, z-test)
Inferential Stats
63
Describe the Measures of Central Tendency
1. Mean- (average) the most useful; only one to react to every score in the distribution!
2. Median- (middle) most useful in a skewed distribution, in an even data set add the middle two numbers and divide by 2
3. Mode- (most appearing) least important, point of highest concentration on a distribution
4. Range- (highest #-lowest #) the greater the range, the greater the dispersion of scores from the M
*Interquartile Range- concerned with the 50th percentile...upper quartile (75th percentile) minus lower quartile (25th percentile)
* Inclusive Range- highest minus lowest +1
Standard Deviation (SD)- average distance of scores from the M
1. find the M
2. subtract the M from each data, then square each sum
3. Add all the sums to find the sum of squares
4. divide sum of squares by n-1 to find variance
5. square variance to get SD!
64
Correlation Research determines what?
The strength of the relationship between the variables, with the closer to -/+1, the stronger the relationship (r)
usually depicted by a scatterplot which depicts pairs of scores
~ positive correlation is when one variable goes up, so does the other
~ negative correlation is when one variable goes down, the other goes up
small correlation- .20 or less
medium correlation- .50 or less
strong correlation- .80 or higher
65
What are the 3 tests to test for statistical significance?
1. Chi-square- tests whether or not two categorical variables are stat. significant
2. t-test- tests whether there is stat. significance between the means of 2 groups (if the calculated value is higher than the critical value, reject null!)
3. F-test (ANOVA)- tests whether there is stat. significance between the means of multiple groups (measures how the DV changes according to the level of the IV, which there should be 3 of...if one level is stat. sig, reject the null!)
66
Null hypothesis vs. alternative hypothesis
Null- there is no relationship, IV does not affect DV
Alt- IV does impact DV, there is a relationship
67
A false positive; rejecting the null when it is true
Type I Error (alpha)
68
A false negative; accepting the null when it is false
Type II Error (beta)
*note: increasing your sample size decreases risk of Type I&II errors; moving to a lower probability (.05 to .001) decreases chance of type I but increases chance of type II errors!
69
Getting consistent results every time the measure is used
Test Retest Reliability
70
Getting consistent results no matter who uses the measure
Interrater Reliability
71
Getting consistent results no matter how the items on the test are worded
Internal Reliability
72
Explain Criterion Validity
Made up of:
1. Concurrent Validity- how similar a new test is to an already established test of the same construct
2. Predictive Validity- how well a test can predict future outcomes
73
How well a test measures the specific construct it intends to measure (ex. a test of social anxiety measuring social anxiety and not shyness)
Construct Validity
made up of:
1. Convergent Validity- degree to which a test corresponds with another test of the same contrust
2. Divergent Validity- degree to which a test is different from another test of a different construct
74
How well a test measures ALL aspects of a given construct (a test measuring intelligence should measure all types of intelligence not just one)
Content Validity
75
Positively skewed vs. Negatively skewed distributions
Positive- abundance of low scores
Negative- abundance of high scores
76
What is a Quasi-Experimental Study?
A quanitative design that cannot state with any certainty that the IV causes changes in the DV because it used pre-existing IVs meaning they cannot be manipulated (low internal validity)
ex. Ex-Post Facto Design (after the fact)
77
What are threats/protections to internal validity?
Internal Validity is concerned with how accurate the results are.
Threats: selection bias, experimenter effects, attrition (clients dying), maturation (clients aging/becoming fatigued), statistical regression
Protections: using a control group and random assignment, conducting research in a natural setting, controlling for extraneous variable
78
What are threats/protections to external validity?
External validity is concerned with how generalizable the results are to the larger population.
Threats:
selection bias, instrumentation defects, placebo effect, Hawthorne Effect (subjects changing their behavior because they know they are being watched)
Protections:
Using a larger, more representative sample, using real-life setting, repeating the study with different subjects
79
Statistical procedure that simplifies complex data sets by identifying underlying themes to group them in
Factor Analysis
80
Experiments emphasize "Parsimony"
explaining data in simplest way aka Occum's Razor
81
What are the ideal sample sizes for an experiment, correlational research and a survey?
Experiment- at least 30 people
Correlational- 30 people per variable
Survey- at least 100 people
82
An educated guess which can be tested using the experimental model (IV and DV)
Hypothesis
83
What do you need in order to compare a control group with an experimental group?
Test of Statistical Significance (p is less than or equal to .05)- used to determine if the differences are significant or due to chance factors
84
A design that looks at changes in the different subjects assigned to the different levels of the IV (requires more subjects because subjects experience different levels of the IV)
Between-Subjects Design
85
A design that measures the changes that occur in the individual members, all of whom experience each level of the IV (more statistically powerful!)
Within-Subjects Design (aka repeated measures)
*susceptible to Carryover Effects- when the order of the levels influence responses
86
P is less than or equal to .05 means?
There's only a 5% chance that the differences between the control group and the experimental group are due to chance; the experimenter will obtain the same results 95 times out of 100
87
A value obtained from a population that summarizes a characteristic of that population (ex. average male height is 5'9'')
Parameter
88
Long-term qualitative research observing people in their natural environments
Ethnographic Research
89
The smaller the p-value, the higher the significance?
True!
.001 is smaller than .05
90
One variable is continuous and other is dichotomous (ex. exam scores and pass/fail)
Biserial Correlation
91
Both variables are dichotomous (pass/fail and pass/fail)
Phi-coefficient correlation
92
Tests if there are significant differences between the Ms of the DV, after controlling for extraneous variables
Analysis of Covariates
93
Parametric vs Nonparametric Tests
Parametric:
- only works with a normal distribution (Guassian curve; mesokurtic)
- uses Interval & Ratio data; continuous data
- powerful
- ex. t-test, ANOVA, Pearson's r
Nonparametric:
- works when normal distribution isn't present
- uses nominal & ordinal data
- less powerful
- ex. Wilcoxon Signed test, Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis Test, Spearman rho
94
Nonparametric test that compares the medians of 2 or more groups; used instead of ANOVA
Kruskal-Wallis test
95
Nonparametric test used to test if 2 correlated means differ significantly (ex. pretest/post-test); used in place of t-test
Wilcoxon Signed test
96
Nonparametric test used to test if 2 uncorrelated means differ significantly (ex. comparing Group A to Group B); used in place of t-test
Mann-Whitney U test
97
Nonparametric test that measures ranked data (ordinal data) when Pearson's r cannot be used
Spearman's Correlation (rho) aka Kendall's Tau
98
Subject doesn't know whether they are receiving control or experimental group
Single-Blind Study
99
Neither subject or researcher know which treatment group the subjects are in
Double-Blind Study
*helps eliminate Experimenter Effects- when experimenter unconsciously communicates their expectations or intent of the study which alters subject's responses
100
When researcher actually participates in the research while making observations
Participant Observer Model
101
What is the Empirical Rule?
In a normal distribution (M=0, SD=1), 68% of scores fall within +/-1 SD from the M, 95% fall within +/-2 SD, and 99.7% fall within +/-3 SD
*almost all scores will fall between 3 SDs*
102
Measure of central tendency that is the reciprocal of the arithmetic mean
Harmonic Mean
103
Experiments that examine the effects of 2 or more IVs (factors and levels) on a DV
(ex. 2x2, 2x3)
Factorial Designs
104
Experimental design that involves 4 groups, 2 being control groups, to determine if the pretest itself influences the outcome
Solomon Four-Group Design
Group 1: pretest.post-test & experimental tx
Group 2: pretest/post-test only (control grp)
Group 3: post-test only & exp. tx
Group 4: only post-test (control grp)
105
of questions answered corectly
Raw Score
106
Converted raw score (M=100, SD=15) that allows you to analyze data in relation to bell-shaped curve
Standard Score
can be t-score, z-score, stanine score, percentile rank
107
What is plotted on x-axis
IV aka abscissa
108
What is plotted on y-axis
DV aka ordinate
109
What is the oldest method of research?
Naturalistic observation
110
Cognitive bias where one negative trait/impression of a person/object leads to an overall negative evaluation of them and their abilities
Horn effect
111
Cognitive bias where a positive evaluation of a person/object influences their overall judgment about unrelated factors (ex. hiring someone because you find them attractive despite them not having the skills for the job)
Halo effect
112
When subjects alter their responses due to knowing their being observed
Hawthorn effect
113
When a researcher's expectations for subjects unintentionally influence the subjects' behaviors
Rosenthal effect aka Pygmalion effect
114
Examines people born at same time or who shared an event
Cohort Study
115
Predicts that very high or very low scores will move closer to the Mean with repeated tested; a threat to internal validity
Statistical regression
116
Collecting data from different subjects at one point in time
Cross-sectional study
117
Repeatedly collecting data at different points in time from the same subjects
Longitudinal study aka Panel Study
118
Compares findings across multiple different studies
Metanalysis
119
Tests performed AFTER finding statistical significance
Post-Hoc tests
120
Switching the order in which stimuli are presented to subjects
Counterbalancing
121
Type of stratified sampling where a specific target # of cases are needed for each strata
Quota Sampling
122
Type of sampling that uses subjects to find other subjects
Snowball Sampling
123
Type of sampling that chooses subjects based on how easy it is to recruit them (ex. choosing family or people nearby)
Convenience or Opportunity Sampling
124
Type of sampling used when recruiter uses their expertise to select a sample most useful to the purpose of the study; used when there's no interest in generalizing
Purposive/Judgmental Sampling
125
Selecting subjects from a single SES
Horizontal Sampling
126
Choosing subjects from two or more SES
Vertical Sampling
127
Errors that arise when a sample doesn't represent the whole population
Sample Errors
*increase sample size to reduce sample errors!
128
Errors that arise from sources other than the sample (ex. data entry error, biased questions)
Non-sampling errors
129
Going from specific to general (bottom-up),
qualitative, exploratory
Inductive reasoning (theory-generating)
130
Going from general to specific (top-down),
quanitative, confirmatory
Deductive reasoning (theory-testing)
131
Method of scoring scores on a 9-point scale (M=5, SD=2)
Stanine
132
Measures how accurate the test scores are and predict what score they'd likely get if the same person was to retake the test
Standard Error of Measurement
* the lower, the higher the reliability!*
133
What do X, O, E, C, R, NR mean in research?
X- treatment
O- outcome (DV)
E- experimental grp
C- control grp
R- random sampling
NR- no random sampling
134
A quasi-experimental design that doesn't randomly choose control and experimental groups, instead relying on multiple observations of the DV both BEFORE and AFTER treatment
time-series design
135
statistical measure of internal reliability used on tests with dichotomous items (T/F)
Kuder-Richardson Coefficient
136
statistical measure of internal reliability used on tests with non-dichotomous items (more than two options)
Cronbach's alpha
137
How to calculate Coefficient of Determination
Shows total variance in DV that is explained by the IV
- calculate by squaring the correlation coefficient
.70 x .70= .49 or 49%
138
How to calculate the Coefficient of Nondetermination
Shows % of variance in DV NOT explained by IV
- calculate by subtracting coefficient of determination from 100
100-49= 51%
139
Means and SDs of:
Normal Curve- M=0, SD=1 (same for z-scores)
t-test- M=50, SD=10
Stanine- M=5, SD=2
IQ- M=100, SD=15/16
140
Which theorist asserts that Emotional Intelligence is superior to Intellectual Intelligence
Daniel Goleman
141
Measures the magnitude of a relationship between two variables (how significant they really are)
Effect Size
*if you find statistical results, you should still find effect size bc still important to know how strong the effect is!
- can exceed 1.00, with higher (above .8) the stronger
142
Uses qualitative & quanitative research
Mixed-methods design
143
Highest p-value we are willing to tolerate and still say a change is significant
Alpha
p<.05 moderate evidence against null
p<.01 strong evidence against null
p<.001 very strong
144
10-15% of all claims handled by ACA liability insurance programs are related to what?
Suicide
145
