1
Q
Define Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
A
Says as humans fulfill needs on one level, their motivation turns towards the next level
- Physiological Needs (food, water, air, sleep, reproduction)
- Safety (personal security, employment, health, property)
- Love/Belonging (intimate relationships, family, friends)
- Self-Esteem (reputation, self-worth, status, independence)
- Self-Actualization
2
Q
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
A
Argues that behavior is influenced by external constructs (social expectations) and 4 unconscious processes:
1. Covert desires
2. Defenses
3. Dreams
4. Unconscious wishes
3
Q
Freud’s Topographic Notion aka Levels of the Mind
A
- Conscious Awareness (thoughts/ideas we are consciously aware of)
- Preconscious Mind (thoughts/ideas we are not readily aware of but can easily bring to awareness, like memories and stored knowledge)
- Unconscious Mind (thoughts/ideas we are not readily aware of and cannot be brought into awareness by personal effort alone, such as trauma, fears, immoral urges)
4
Q
Parapraxis aka Freudian Slips
A
Overt actions with unconscious meanings
5
Q
Freud’s Theory of Personality
A
ID- made up on instinctual drives, present at birth,
functions off the pleasure principle seeking immediate gratification
EGO- strongest part! Allows for rational thought and ability to delay gratification; adheres to reality principle (balancing desires of ID with moral expectations of superego); believed to be dependent on ID, called the “executive admin” of personality and houses our identity
SUPEREGO- emerges around 5yo; includes morality and justice, strives for perfection
6
Q
Oral stage (birth-1.5yo)
A
gratification through the mouth
infant entirely dependent on caregiver for feeding, develops trust by putting things in mouth
primary conflict: weaning
fixation: nail biter, smoker
7
Q
Anal stage (1.5-3yo)
A
gratification through controlling bladder
primary conflict: toilet training; if successful, feels independent and accomplished
fixation: if parents are too strict with toilet training, anal-retentive (controlling adult)
if parents are too lenient with toilet training, anal expulsive (messy adult)
8
Q
Phallic stage (3-6yo)
A
gratification through genitalia
Oedipus Complex***
child soon identifies with same-sex parent, which leads to development of superego and guilt
success: respect for genders
9
Q
Latent stage (6-puberty)
A
superego continues to develop and id’s sexual energy is repressed into socially acceptable forms (social interactions)
fixation: difficulty forming healthy relationships as an adult
10
Q
Genital stage (puberty-death)
A
libido rises again so now interest in opposite sex
earlier stages focused on the individual, this one focuses on others
11
Q
What the dreamer remembers upon waking
A
Manifest content
12
Q
any hidden symbolic meaning in dreams
A
Latent content
13
Q
Our drive for survival (taking care of our health)
A
Eros/Life Instinct
14
Q
Our drive towards destruction and death (violence, risky acts)
A
Thanatos/Death Instinct
15
Q
Mental energy from ID attached to a person or object
(ex. keepsake, alcohol to ease anxiety)
A
Cathexis
16
Q
when EGO blocks the socially unacceptable desires of the ID (ex. reaction formation)
A
Anticathexis
17
Q
Tactics the ego uses to protect itself from difficult stimuli too difficult for the conscious mind to cope with
A
Defense Mechanisms
18
Q
Taking our frustrations, impulses on people or objects that are less threatening
A
Displacement
19
Q
Outright refusal to accept something as real
A
Denial
20
Q
Allows us to act on unacceptable urges in acceptable ways
A
Sublimation (A.A. Brill)
21
Q
Keeping distressing thoughts/feelings from our conscious mind, but they continue to affect us
(ex. child abuse making it hard for you to form healthy adult relationships)
A
Repression
22
Q
Consciously forcing unwanted info out of awareness
(ex. counting to 10 before reacting)
A
Suppression
23
Q
Placing your own unacceptable qualities onto others
A
Projection
24
Q
Focusing on the logical component of a stressful situation to lower anxiety
(ex. researching cancer instead of sitting with your feelings about having it)
A
Intellectualization
25
Explaining the unacceptable feeling/behavior in a rational way, avoiding the real reason for it
(ex. student blaming their bad grade as a result of the teacher's poor skills rather than their own lack of studying)
Rationalization
26
Acting the opposite of how you truly feel
(ex. being nice to someone you actually dislike)
Reaction Formation
27
Reverting to childlike behaviors in times of stress
Regression
28
Feeling psychological pain as physical symptoms
(ex. sudden blindness after experiencing trauma)
Conversion
29
Helping others deal with their emotional conflicts while fulfilling your own needs through this connection
Altruism
30
Unconsciously adopting the behaviors, traits, beliefs of someone else into your own personality
(ex. a child accepting their parent's values as their own)
Introjection
31
Adopting the behaviors, thoughts and traits of someone else to high degree
(ex. child may become very much like their dad- same job, dressing alike, etc.)
Identification
32
Blocking out the emotions associated to a specific event/person
(ex. explaining trauma without showing emotion)
Isolation of Affect
33
Viewing people/events in extremes (all good or all bad) no grey area
Splitting
34
Trying to symbolically undo an action or thought to cancel out the evil
(ex. someone with OCD repeatedly washing their hands to cancel out the thought about contamination)
Undoing
35
An ego psychologist who believed in man's power of rational thought to control behavior; argued personality was a lifelong process and studied how social interactions impact development
Erik Erikson
36
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust
(birth-1.5yo)
Child's sense of trust based on caregiver's reliability and quality of care
*no child will develop 100% trust; important to find balance between the virtues
VIRTUE: hope
37
Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
(1.5-3yo)
Focus on kid's developing control and independence; kids begin doing actions on their own so vital that parents encourage and support their autonomy
*Erikson agreed with Freud that toilet training important here!
VIRTUE: will
38
Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
(3-6yo)
When children are given the freedom to initiate activities and take risks through play; success builds as sense of purpose and confidence, but strict/controlling parenting will make kids hesitant to try new things or dependent on others
VIRTUE: purpose
39
Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
(6-11yo)
Similar to Freud's Latent Stage
Teacher/peer interactions are important because kids now feeling a need to gain approval and recognition
Balance will result in VIRTUE: competence
40
Stage 5: Identity vs. Role Confusion
(11-18yo)
Identity formation through exploration and self-expression (acceptance from caregivers is vital)
Being able to remain true to yourself will result in VIRTUE: fidelity
41
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
(19-40yo)
Important to establish healthy intimate relationships
*each stage builds on the previous one
VIRTUE: love
42
Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
(40-65yo)
"Generativity" means making your mark on the world by nurturing the things that outlive us, like raising kids, that will result in feeling useful
VIRTUE: care
43
Stage 8: Ego Identity vs. Despair
(65-death)
Task is accepting one's life as having served a purpose, even in the face of death
VIRTUE: wisdom
44
When one can integrate all their previous roles into one self-concept
Ego Ideal
45
Idea from John Locke that kids are blank slates
Tabula Rasa
46
a bidirectional relationship where both impact our behaviors, personality, and intelligence
Nature vs. Nurture
47
Structuralist who believed that development follows a set pattern and children are active in the learning process
Jean Piaget
*believed his cognitive theory was applicable across all cultures*
48
Changing/adapting your existing schemas in light of new info
(ex. learning that "dog" only applies to specific four-legged animals)
Accommodation
49
Making new info fit into your already existing schemas
(ex. referring to all 4-legged animals as dogs)
Assimilation
50
Sensorimotor Stage
(birth-2yo)
Children acquire knowledge through sensory experiences (crawling, sucking) and develop Representational Thought- using symbols to represent objects
(ex. using fingers to represent a phone)
Reflexes important here
Object Permanence- knowing an object continues to exist even when you can't see it (~6 mo)
51
Preoperational Stage
(2-7yo)
Major language developments (multi-word sentences), possesses relative sense of time, and shows Symbolic Thought (pretend play & animism)
Egocentrism- believes everyone thinks as they do because cannot yet consider others' perspectives
Centration- focusing on specific features of an object/situation while not noticing the bigger picture
(ex. focusing on a clown's red nose and nothing else)
52
When child attributes lifelike abilities to non-living objects
Animism
53
Concrete Operational Stage
(7-11yo)
Kids good at Inductive Reasoning (S->G)
(ex. itchy eyes around a cat may indicate allergies)
Decentration- being able to acknowledge many aspects of a situation
Conservation- knowing a certain quantity (volume/mass) remain the same despite changes in container shape/size
Reversibility- ability to mentally undo an action (knowing 2+3=5 and 5-3=2)
54
Formal Operations
(12yo+)
Increase in abstract thought, including moral and ethical thought, and problem-solving
Deductive Reasoning (G->S)
(ex. all insects have 6 legs, spiders have 8, therefore spiders are not insects)
55
What are Piaget's 2 Major Stages of Moral Development?
1. Heteronomous Morality
(4-7yo)
child views rules as absolute and punishable
2. Autonomous Morality
(10yo)
child views rules as changeable
56
Theorist who argued babies possess no morality/ethics at birth and a child's moral development is impacted by their experiences
*expanded on Piaget's theory of moral development
*believed moral development to be a lifelong process and stages unfold as a result of educational intervention
*Linear theory with 3 levels, 6 stages
Lawrence Kohlberg
57
Child's decisions primarily based on expectations of adults and the consequences of breaking them
Kohlberg's Stage 1- Preconventional Morality
(up to 9yo)
58
What are the two stages of Kohlberg's Preconventional Morality?
1. Obedience & Punishment- sees rules as fixed and obeys them to avoid punishment
2. Individualism & Exchange of Favors- act in way that is most beneficial to them ("What's in it for me?" mentality" and emphasis on Moral Reciprocity ("I'll scratch your back if you scratch mine"?)
59
Focus on conformity to social rules and standards
Kohlberg's Stage 2- Conventional Morality
(7-11yo)
60
What are the two stages in Kohlberg's Conventional Morality?
3. Developing Good Interpersonal Relationships- focused on conforming to societal standards and considers how their choices will affect others; asks "what do others think of me?" (ex. I won't tell on her because I want her to like me or not joining in because others aren't)
4. Maintaining Social Order- focused on maintaining law & order and respecting authority
(ex. you can't do that because she's a teacher)
61
Focused on universal ethical principles of justice and equality; people become more aware of abstract morality
*not everyone reaches this level*
Kohlberg's 3rd Level- Post-Conventional Morality
(11yo+)
62
What are the two stages in Kohlberg's third stage of moral development?
5. Social Contract & Individual Rights- aware that while laws and rules exist for the good of the greatest number, there are times when they will work against the interest of people
6. Universal Principles- develop your own set of moral guidelines
63
Proposed a feminist theory of moral development that argued that women prioritize an "ethics of care" (nonviolence) when their morality is developing while men prioritize an "ethics of justice" (equality)
Carol Gilligan
64
Describe Gilligan's 3 levels
Preconventional- woman focuses entirely on her own needs
Conventional- woman focuses on needs of others and helping others
Post-conventional- woman finds balance between self-needs and needs of others
65
Refers to a space between what a learner can do independently and what they can do with guidance from a teacher
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development
*learning within one's ZPD is most effective because it encourages pushing past one's comfort zone while still providing support if needed*
66
The person (teacher, peer, software) providing guidance to the learner
The More Knowledgeable Other
67
Teaching method based on Vygotsky's ZPD, where an instructor provides temporary support (i.e. modeling, breaking down tasks) to help learner master the skill they cannot yet complete alone
Scaffolding
68
Parenting style including obedience without question, harsh punishment without explaining why such rules exist, emotionally withdrawn parents, kids with low SE & poor social skills
Authoritarian (parent-driven)
69
Parenting style including boundaries and expected obedience with love (open communication), children involved in the decision-making, rules are explained and enforced consistently, children with high SE & confidence
Authoritative
70
Parenting style including overindulging in the children, parents being more concerned with being their child's friend, enforcing few rules, and children who are disrespectful & have issues with authority figures
Permissive (child-driven)
71
Parenting style involving spending as little time with your children, lacks guidance and discipline (inconsistent), and children tend toward delinquency & have lack of respect for others
Neglectful/Uninvolved
72
Research that studies individuals (ex. Piaget, Freud)
Idiographic Studies
73
Research that studies groups (ex. behaviorists, DSM)
Nomothetic Studies
74
What is Arnold Lazarus' Multimodal Therapy (MMT)?
Addresses multiple aspects of a person's life (BASIC ID); assumes that psychological issues are multifaceted and require looking at the WHOLE person, not simply isolating sxs
B- ehavior
A- ffect
S- ensation
I- magery
C- ognition
I- nterpersonal rts
D- rugs/biology
75
Known for his ideas around adult cognitive development, specifically Dualistic Thinking in teens- (aka dichotomous thinking) "for every question there is a simple answer"
vs.
Relativistic Thinking in adults- not everything has a simple explanation, but answers are shaped by our interpretations and cultural/personal experiences
"there's more than one way to view the world"
Robert Perry
76
What is Robert Kegan's Subject-Object Shift Theory of Adult Development?
The ability to view aspects of your life that were once seen as inherent (subject) as external and detachable (object)
ex. A person who says "I'm shy" is viewing shyness as a part of their core identity (subject). A more developed person might say "I have some shy feelings," recognizing shyness as a feeling that isn't permanent (object).
77
Why did Kohlberg use the Heinz Dilemma?
To understand the person's reasoning (Why) for their decision, not the decision itself, to understand their moral development
78
What did Harry Stack Sullivan contribute to psychology?
The belief that personality is only developed from interpersonal relationships (7 stages) *similar to Erikson*
1. Infancy- rt with caregivers
2. Childhood- rts with parents & imaginary friends
3. Juvenile Era- rts with peers
etc.
79
Behavioristic technique where an unwanted behavior/response to a stimulus is replaced with a more neutral one
Counterconditioning
ex. systematic desensitization;
person with a fear of public speaking begins associating public speaking with positive experiences/rewards to alleviate the fear
80
Freud and Erikson are considered what kind of theorists?
Maturationists!
Maturation Theory argues that behaviors are guided by biological and psychological factors, which manifest in predetermined stages (aka certain behaviors only manifest under the correct conditions)
81
Explain Bowlby's Attachment Theory
Infants have a biological need to form emotional bonds with their primary caregivers for survival & well-being (before the age of 3; or else called 'Object Loss' and will negatively impact adult rts)
- these early attachments shape a child's emotional and social development, which impacts later SE and rts
*if the bond is severed prematurely, MH issues!
82
Person having a positive view of themselves and others, feeling comfortable with intimacy, and can openly express their emotions has which attachment style?
Secure
83
Person with a low view of themselves, is uncomfortable with intimacy, values independence, is distant, and has difficulty trusting others has which attachment style?
Avoidant
84
Person with a low view of themselves but a high view of others, are eager for intimacy by also fear abandonment, and seek constant reassurance from their partner has which attachment style?
Anxious-ambivalent
85
Person with signs of both anxious and avoidant styles, fears rejection but crave intimacy, unable to regulate their emotions, has difficulty trusting others, is drawn to volatile rts, and most always has a trauma history has which attachment style?
Disorganized/Fearful-avoidant
86
What is Ainsworth's "Strange Situation"?
Method of assessing a child's attachment style to their primary caregiver by observing how the child responds to separations from and reunions to their caregiver in an unfamiliar situation, and how they react to a stranger
87
Self-concept is said to establish by what age?
~24 months!
88
What is Margaret Mahler's Separation-Individual Theory?
Argues that a child's psychological development progresses through a process of separating from the mother and establishing a sense of self
- called a child's complete dependence of the mother "Symbiosis" and believed difficulties separating could result in adult psychosis
89
Describe Harry Harlow's Experiment on Maternal Deprivation in Monkeys
Harlow believed attachment to be an innate tendency (NOT learned) and his study showed that factors beyond food (specifically comfort and security) are crucial in early development
He created two surrogate mothers for infant monkeys- one made of wire equipped with a bottle, the other made of soft cloth; results showed that monkeys consistently spent more time with the cloth surrogate, despite the other offering food
- results also showed that infant monkeys who were deprived of a mother figure during a critical pd developed significant social and emotional problems (aggression & difficulty forming social bonds)
90
The fear of death is greatest among which age group?
Middle age
91
Which Freudian developmental stage LEAST emphasizes sexuality?
Latent stage
92
Stanley Coopersmith found that child-rearing methods tremendously impact what?
Self-esteem!
Kids with higher SE were punished just as often as those with low SE, however the kids with high SE were given a clear understanding of what was right and wrong and the punishment emphasized the behavior being bad, NOT the child
93
Development is...
Cephalocaudal (head to foot)
94
Stage theorists assume qualitative changes occur between stages
True!
95
Explain Eleanor Gibson's Visual Cliff Experiment
Studies depth perception in infants by using a visual cliff; found that most babies won't attempt the visual cliff by 6 months old, indicating that depth perception is inherent
96
Theorists who value quanitative, observable changes in development are known as
Empiricists
(ex. behaviorists)
97
Theorists who believe an individual's actions are more important than the environment in terms of development are called; they see the whole individual
Organismic
(ex. naturalists, Maslow, Piaget, Gestalt)
98
Watching violence tends to make kids more aggressive?
True!
99
The study of animal behavior in their natural environments
Ethology
100
What is Konrad Lorenz best known for?
Imprinting and critical periods, or the belief that certain behaviors must be learned at an early time in one's development or will never be learned
101
Lab research using animals and attempting to generalize findings to humans is called?
Comparative research
102
Piaget believed teachers should lecture less because concrete operationals learn best through their own actions
True!
103
What is Robert Havinghurst's Developmental Task Theory?
Outlines key tasks people must master at different life stages for overall well-being
1. Infancy- learn to walk, talk, eat solids, toilet train
3. Adolescence- learn to accept one's body, prepare for career/marriage
104
What is Daniel Levinson's "season of life" theory?
Highlights "midlife crisis"- transitional period between 40-45 where an individual re-evaluates life and confronts their morality
105
Jane Loevinger's Ego Development Theory argues what?
People progress through distinct stages in ego development (the farther up the hierarchy, the more self-awareness!
1. Pre-social (infancy)- dependent on caregiver; no sense of self
4. Conformist- prioritizes social norms
5. Self-aware
7. Individualistic- prioritizes own values and beliefs while respecting other's individuality
106
Elementary school counseling is fairly new (didn't gain momentum until 1960s). Why?
1. Most people believed schoolteachers could double as counselors
2. Counseling was viewed as focusing on vocations, which wouldn't apply to elementary students
3. Secondary schools had counselors available if psychological problems persisted as the student got older
107
What is the Plant-Growth Analogy?
Argues that human development is predetermined by genetics, with kids unfolding like plants. Just as seeds hold the blueprint for a specific plant, kids mature according to innate, genetic schedules, needing only environmental support (sun, soil) to reach their potential
*align with maturationists!
108
Underrating a reward because you didn't get it
ex. "the party wasn't even cool"
"the job didn't pay enough anyway"
Sour Grapes Rationalization
109
Convincing yourself that an undesireable outcome is actually good
ex. "my flight being delayed was actually good because I got to spend more time with you"
Sweet Lemons Rationalization
110
Considers the influence a person has on their environment and the influence different environments (social, family, economic, religious) have on a person
Person-in-Environment Theory (PIE)
111
What is Bronfenbrenner's Ecological Theory?
Focuses on the bidirectional influences between individual development and the surrounding environment
1. MICROSYSTEM- things that have direct contact with the child in their immediate environment (ex. parents, siblings, teachers)
2. MESOSYSTEM- interactions between the child's microsystems (ex. interx between child's parents and teachers)
3. EXOSYSTEM- includes other social structures, which do not themselves contain the child, but indirectly influence the child
(ex. neighborhood, parent's workplace/parent displacing their anger for their boss onto their child)
MACROSYSTEM- how cultural elements impact child development
(ex. SES, child in 3rd world country having different childhood as child in US)
CHRONOSYSTEM- consists of major life transitions
(ex. divorce, moving)
112
Traditional counseling or Crisis intervention?
If goal is to return client to original level of functioning prior to event, it is crisis intervention!
113
First psychoanalytic patient who suffered from hysteria and in hypnosis, would remember painful events and talking about them helped relieve sxs; real name Berta Pappenheim
Anna O
114
Child's fear of being bitten by a horse was explained using psychoanalytic techniques (Oedipus complex & castration anxiety)
Little Hans
115
Talking about difficulties to purge emotions
Catharsis aka Abreaction
116
According to Freudians, the most important defense mechanism is?
Repression
*suppression is similar, but is a conscious act!
117
What is the oldest form of therapy?
Psychoanalysis
118
Counseling tool intended to make clients aware of their unconscious processes
Interpretation
119
What did Eric Fromm believe about religions?
He believed religions were necessary
1. Humanistic Religions- those that don't have a higher power that controls humans
2. Authoritarian Religions- those where humans submit to a higher power (Fromm believed this kind can inhibit personal growth)
120
when a client becomes aware of something in their life they weren't aware of before; the "aha, now I understand" phenomenon
Insight
121
When client displaces their feelings towards someone else onto their T
Transference
122
When the T's strong feelings to the client are impacting tx
Countertransference
123
When client sees T as a substitute parent
Transference neurosis
124
Jung said males and females operate from which principles?
Men- Logos (logic)
Women- Eros (intuition)
125
Jung used drawings balanced around a center point to analyze himself, clients and dreams called what
Mandalas
126
In contrast to Freudians, Neo-Fruedians emphasize what?
Social factors!
stress importance of cultural (social) and interpersonal (social) issues
(ex. Horney, Adler, Erikson, Fromm)
127
Theories that stress importance of counselor understanding the client's view (constructs) to explain their problem
Constructivist theories
1. Brief therapy- examines what worked for client in the past
2. Narrative therapy- examines the stories in client's life and rewrites
128
Myers- Briggs Type Indicator is linked to who?
Jung!
*It is the most used personality measure!
*It produces a 4-letter code based off 4 bipolar scales:
1. Introversion/Extroversion
2. Thinking/Feeling
3. Sensing/Intuition
4. Judging/Perceiving
129
Thinking/Feeling type is what?
Thinking- uses logic, objective facts
Feeling- values harmony, nurturing
ex. When handling conflict, a thinker would address conflict directly and objectively, whereas a feeler may avoid conflict to maintain the peace or avoid hurting someone's feelings
130
Sensing/Intuition type is what?
Sensing- focuses on present realities/ what is
Intuition- focuses on future possibilities/ what could be
ex. When using a recipe, a sensor would follow it exactly, an intuitive person treats it as a guideline while experimenting/abstract thinking
131
Judging/perceiving type is what?
Judgers prefer structure and planning
Perceivers prefer spontaneity and flexibility
132
Who was the first to discuss the use of group therapy in private practice?
Rudolph Dreikurs
133
Who was one of the first Ts to use paradoxical interventions?
Adler!
134
(Associated with Viktor Frankl) Instruct clients to engage in and exaggerate their problematic sxs
Paradoxical interventions
135
Psychoanalytic term; dealing with one symptom will only manifest another symptom because the issue is the unconscious mind
Symptom substitution
136
Frederick Thorne coined term
Eclectic
(incorporating multiple theoretical perspectives to best help clients)
137
What was Viktor Frankl known for?
Finding meaning in suffering as the primary source of motivation
*existentialist
138
Skinner's reinforcement theory elaborated on what?
Thorndike's Law of Effect- responses accompanied by satisfaction will be repeated, while those followed by discomfort will be stamped out
139
Neal Miller's studies proved what?
That animals could be conditioned to control autonomic processes (bp, heart rate) through use of rewards
*today is known as Biofeedback*
140
Who is known as the Mother of Behavioral Therapy?
Mary Cover Jones
she deconditioned childhood fears, showing that learning could serve as a treatment for phobias
ex. Peter- Jones eliminated his fear of rabbits by pairing it with pleasurable stimuli aka gradual exposure (a precursor to Volpe's SD)
141
Boys tend to have higher SE than girls?
True!
142
A lower-probability behavior is reinforced by a higher-probability behavior is what?
Premack Principle
ex. if you eat your veggies (LPB), you can have ice cream (HPB)
143
Provides T and client with biological information the client can use to learn how to control their physiological responses (self-regulation!)
Biofeedback
ex. mirrors, EMG (muscles), EKG (heart), EEG (brain waves)
*called neurofeedback when it targets brain
144
What are the 3 types of learning?
1. Classical conditioning (association)
2. Operant conditioning (reinforcement)
3. Insight
145
Stimulus the produces automatic response
(food)
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
146
Stimulus that doesn't initially trigger a response on its own
(bell)
Neutral stimulus
147
Stimulus that was once neutral, but now leads to a response
(bell)
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
148
Automatic response to UCS
(salivating)
UCR
149
Learned response
(salivating)
CS
*Never as powerful as UCR because it is learned!
150
Pairing something with an aversive stimulus to reduce satisfaction
(ex. pairing alcohol with nausea-inducing vomiting to reduce drinking)
Aversive Conditioning
151
What is the most effective time interval between CS and US?
1/2 second
152
Putting the unconditioned stimulus (food) BEFORE the conditioned stimulus (bell)...results in no conditioning!
Backward conditioning
153
Presenting the US and CS simultaneously...resulting in no conditioning!
Simultaneous conditioning
154
CS comes BEFORE UCS
Forward conditioning!
155
When a new stimulus is paired with CS (bell) and then takes on the power of the CS
ex. light is paired with bell and now the light (previously neutral) causes salivating alone)
Higher-Order Conditioning
156
When differentiation becomes too tough because the stimuli are almost identical, the subject shows emotional disturbance
ex. Pavlov trained dogs to associate a circle with food and an eclipse with no food. When dogs couldn't differentiate between the two shapes, the CR (salivating) was repressed and dogs became agitated
Experimental Neurosis
*Spontaneous recovery- CR can reappear
157
No pairing CS with USC will result in
Extinction!
158
Behaviors are shaped by consequences
Operant Conditioning
159
Rewarded behaviors likely to be repeated
Reinforcements
160
Reduces likelihood of behavior repeating
Punishments
161
All reinforcements increase likelihood of behavior reoccurring?
True!
162
Add a pleasant stimulus after a desirable behavior
Positive Reinforcement
163
Taking away pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior
(ex. taking away videogames)
Negative punishment
164
Removing unpleasant stimulus after desired behavior
(ex. taking pill to relieve pain)
Negative reinforcement
165
Adding unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior
(ex. giving bad grade to student who cheats on test)
Positive punishment
166
A neutral stimulus that becomes reinforcing by association; it gains value by being paired with a primary reinforcer (food/pleasure)
Secondary Reinforcer
(ex. plastic token being exchanged for toy, money)
167
Negative reinforcement is not used as often as positive reinforcement
True!
168
Behavior modifiers value reinforcement over punishmentB
True!
*effects of punishment are temporary and can teach aggression*
169
When reinforcement is withheld and eventually the previously reinforced behavior is extinguished
Operant extinction
(ex. parent ignoring child's tantrum to get attention, time out)
170
Behavior gets worse before it gets better
Extinction burst
171
Behavior modification techniques based heavily on Operant conditioning, while Behavior therapy based heavily on Classical conditioning
True!
172
Rules in operant conditioning that determine the timing and frequency of reinforcement
Schedules of reinforcement
1. Continuous- desired behavior is reinforced every time
2. Intermittent (4 kinds)- behavior reinforced only sometimes (better!)
173
What are the 4 schedules of intermittent reinforcement?
1. Fixed-interval: an exact amount of time passes between each reinforcement
(ex. getting paycheck every 2 weeks)
2. Variable-Interval: a varying amount of time passes between each reinforcement
(ex. receiving praise from boss)
3. Fixed-Ratio: reinforcement after fixed number of responses
(ex. getting one free meal after purchasing 10)
4. Interval-Ratio: reinforcement after varying number
(ex. lottery, slot machines)
174
Variable schedules are MORE effective than Fixed?
True!
*due to the unpredictable nature of reinforcement, which fosters strong engagement and higher responding!
175
Ratio schedules are MORE effective than Interval schedules?
True!
*bc they set clearer link between response and reward!
176
Variable Ratio (lottery) is most difficult intermittent schedule to extinguish?
True!
*bc it reinforces behavior after an unpredictable number of responses, creating strong gambling-like energy, encouraging continuous effort!
177
Intermittent schedules most to least effective?
Most effective- variable ratio
variable interval
fixed ratio
Least effective- fixed interval
178
Stanley Milgram's electric shock experiment studied obedience and authority, finding that orders were followed when reporter was seen as an authority figure
True!
