1
Q
What is memory?
A
the capacity to store and receive information in order to facilitate learning
2
Q
what are the three steps to memory
A
- encoding
- storing
- retrieval
3
Q
what is encoding?
A
the initial process of transforming sensory input into a form that the brain can store and later retrieve
4
Q
what is the misinformation effect?
A
providing people with misinfomrtaion which creates a false memory
- happens a lot with police questioning
5
Q
what are the signs of false memories?
A
source amnesia
lack of verbatim memory
6
Q
what is source amnesia
A
the inability to point out source of a memory; forgot how and when they learned it
7
Q
what is verbatim memory
A
the precise word-for-word recall of information; essentially the ability to recall an event verbatim to how you remeber it every time
8
Q
what predicts the quality of a memory?
A
attention
9
Q
what does storing a memory entail?
A
the capacity to maintain information over a certain period of time
10
Q
what is the multi-store model of memory
A
a model proposing that information flows from our senses through three storage levels in memory
11
Q
what are the three storage levels in memory
A
sensory; short-term; long -term
12
Q
what is sensory memory
A
he brief, highly detailed, and large-capacity storage of sensory information that lasts for only a few seconds before it’s either forgotten or transferred to short-term memory
for example when you use a sparkler you can still see the shape that it makes
13
Q
what is working memory
A
the temporary mental scratchpad that allows you to hold and manipulate information for tasks like problem-solving, learning, and following directions
14
Q
what is long-term memory
A
the brain’s system for storing information for extended periods, from hours to a lifetime, encompassing personal events, facts, and skills
15
Q
what is priming
A
a process in which previous exposure to a stimulus enhances a person’s processing and response to that stimulus when it is presented again
16
Q
how many items can we store in our working memory at a time
A
4-7
17
Q
Recency effect
A
The last items on a list are still in short-term memory or working memory and can be recalled easily.
18
Q
Primacy effect
A
Items at the beginning of the list may have initially received more
processing, such as extra rehearsal and elaboration and be retained in memory better
19
Q
What were neurologist able to learn from HM
A
the hippocampus is where short term memories are ep and he could not create any long-term memories
20
Q
what are the two types of long-term memory
A
explicit and implicit
21
Q
implicit memory
A
the unconscious, long-term memory for skills and procedures that does not require conscious recollection
22
Q
explicit memory
A
the conscious, intentional recall of facts and past events
23
Q
what are the two types of explicit memories
A
episodic- personal experiences
semantic- general knowledge
24
Q
Trace decay theory
A
a psychological concept that explains forgetting occurs due to the mere passage of time, causing memory traces to fade and weaken if not actively rehearsed or retrieved
“use it or lose it”
25
interference theory
integrating new information may interfere with some older memories
26
encoding failures
the inability to store information in memory because it was never properly processed from short-term to long-term memory in the first place
27
amnesia
loss of memory due to brain damage and trauma
28
Anterograde amnesia
The inability to transfer information from short-term to long-term memory, preventing new long-term memories from forming
29
Retrograde amnesia
A form of amnesia in which access to memories prior to brain damage is impaired, but the individual can store new
experiences in long-term memory
30
infantile amnesia
The inability of children to retrieve episodic memories from before 3-3.5 years of age.
31
theories behind infantile amnesia
neurological immaturity; lack of memory abilities; lack of ability to tell stories; lack of sense of self
32
accidental vs intentional forgetting
accidental- an unintentional side-effect of memory processes; Can be caused by decay, retrieval failure, or interference from other memories
intentional- actively inhibiting or suppressing unwanted memories, either at encoding or retrieval.
33
Tips to improve memory
* Self-referential encoding
* Curiosity and Purpose
* Deep encoding
* Visualization
* Chunking
* Sleeping
* Create questions
* Repetition
* Create Cues
* Time your arousal
34
what is language
expression and communication of thoughts (meaning), and feelings by means of vocal sounds or any other symbolic systems
***only humans are capable
35
what is communication
the broader process of conveying and understanding those messages
36
what makes language particular to humans
arbitrariness of symbols or signs
sources of novelty in meaning making
flexibility of expression- words and sentences
interpersonal and co-constructive function in communication
37
what two things does it take to have langauge
human brain and human environment
38
what part does the human brain have in the development of language?
1. we have the neural circuitry dedicated to speech perception which is activated by 3 months old
2. we all have an innate language acquisition device, which means we have innate knowledge of grammar
39
what is Noam Chomsky's Theory of Universal grammar
proposes that humans are born with an innate, biological capacity for language, which is a set of pre-existing rules that all languages share
40
what part does the human environment have in the development of language?
1. infancts need language input
2. they need to have a specific form of language "Infant-directed speech"- meaning that you have to speak in a specific intonation
3. they also need to reciprocate even if its just with babbles.
41
what is the sensitive period for language
a period of time in development where a certain
ability or skill is more readily acquired, and if failed to be acquired, it is significantly harder to obtain
42
what age is the sensitive period
7- puberty
43
how do children learn language?
1. speech perception 2. speech production
44
what are the two types of speech perception
1. categorical perception 2. Word segmentation
45
what is categorical perception
The perception of speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories
- usually ends around 10 months
46
how did they test categorical perception
the ability of babies to differentiate between B and P by testing head turning
- rabbit
47
what is word segmentation
The process of discovering where words begin and end in fluent speech
48
at what age range are babies able to segment giberish from words
(7-9 months)
49
what is statistical learning
Our ability to recognize patterns or regularities
50
when do the vocal cords develop
6-8 weeks babies start making sounds which allow them to gain vocal motor control
51
KNOW THE STAGES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
52
what are some basic principals of communication
turn taking, pointing, questioning, responding
53
what are advantages of bilinguilism
1. better theory of mind performance
2. better performance in some executive function tasks
## Footnote
theory of mind- the ability to understand that people have different desires, thoughts, etc. to them and thats why they behave differently
executive function- planning, time management, etc.
54
what is intelligence
The capability to think abstractly, comprehend complex ideas, reason, plan, solve problems, learn from experience, and acquire new knowledge
55
what is the general intelligence (g factor)?
A general mental ability that Charles
Spearman hypothesized is required for virtually any mental test
56
what is fluid intelligence
A component of general intelligence that involves the ability to deal with new and unusual problems
57
what is crystallized intelligence
A component of general intelligence that
involves accumulated knowledge and skills
58
what are the types of intelligence (strenberg's)
1. analytical
2. creative
3. practical
59
what is analytical intelligence?
the ability to analyze, evaluate, and solve complex problems by breaking them down, identifying patterns, and using logic and reasoning
60
what is practical intelligence?
the ability to use common sense, experience, and creativity to solve real-world, everyday problems
61
what is binet's intelligence test
intelligence could be shpaed by environment; used to compute children's mental age
62
what was lewis terman able to derive from the intelligence test
1. intelligence was innate
2. IQ score
3. determine brillance rank and then eugenics was born
63
how is intelligence tested today
1. achievement tests
2. aptitude tests
64
what is an achievement test
A test that is designed to measure how much a
person has learned over a certain period of time
65
what is an aptitude test
A test designed to measure a person’s potential to learn new skills
66
what does the adult intelligence score measure
working memory, comprehension, perceptual reasoning; aptitude in clinical patients
67
criteria for useful intelligence tests
1. standardization
2. reliability
3. validity
68
what is standardization
makes scores meaningful by defining them in relation to the performance of a pre-tested group
69
what is reliability
The degree by which a measure yields consistent results
70
what is validity
The extent to which a test measures or predicts what it is supposed to
71
what are 3 criteria for intelligence
1. genes
2. environment
3. characteristics
72
is intelligence heritable
yes it is heritable
73
what are some characteristics that a person can have to be more intelligent
1. grit
2. internal motivation
3. self-control
74
what is health psychology
Investigates the links between behavior, cognition, and physical health
75
what is the differences between fixed and growth mindset?
fixed- the belief that abilities and intelligence are static and unchangeable
growth- the belief that they can be developed through effort and practice
76
what is the biopyschosocial model
a comprehensive approach to health and illness that considers the complex interaction of biological (e.g., genetics, physiology), psychological (e.g., emotions, thoughts, behaviors), and social (e.g., socioeconomic status, family, culture) factors
77
what is stress
Physiological response to some type of environmental event that is subjectively appraised as taxing or even exceeding one’s ability to adapt
78
what is the stress appraisal theory
a psychological model that explains how individuals perceive and respond to stressful events
79
what is emotion?
The coordinated behaviors, feelings, and physiological changes that occur when a situation becomes relevant to our personal goals
80
what are the two driving theories behind emotion
discrete emotions theory
dimensional/ constructivist theory
81
what is the discrete emotions approach
focuses on specific emotions such as anger, fear, and pride
- Treats each emotion as categorically distinct from others (why they happen and how your body reacts)
-innate
82
what is a proof that we have categories of emotion
the fact that babies arent taught specific faces for emotions and that other people are able to describe and label these emotions effectively
83
what are the limitations of this decsrete emotions theory
- you are able to have process of elimination and decide what an emotion is based on what it cannot be from the options you aready have
84
what is the dimensional approach
An approach to analyzing emotions that focuses on dimensions such as pleasantness and activation
- it is also culturally constructed
85
what are the two dimensions for the dimensional approarch
arousal- How activated (or aroused) the person
feels when in the midst of the emotion
valence- How pleasant or unpleasant the emotion feels
86
what is one main difference between the discrete and dimensional
in the dimensional it admits that there may be overlaps in how emotions are expressed- tears of joy and tears of sadness
- also sometimes we can have the same physiological effects for the same emotions- joy and anger (ex: increased heart rate)
87
which nervous system responds to emotions
autonomic
88
what is the Schacter-singer theory
The theory that emotion arises from the interpretation of bodily responses in the context of situational cues.
- The step
stimulus-->physiological responses-->judgmenet-->emotional experience
89
what is the criticism of the Schacter-singer theory
misattribution of arousal- when people mistake the cause of their physiological arousal, such as a racing heart or sweaty palms, and incorrectly attribute the feeling to a different source
90
why does the misattribution effect happen
when our brain is stressed and our body is reacting, whether we have shifts in hormones, etc. our brain wants to take the most salient route/ attractive reason behind our emotions
91
what is emotional regulation
The ability to initiate, inhibit, or modulate emotional-related thoughts, feelings, physical reactions or behavior.
92
what are some factors affecting development of emotional regulation
Temperament/ biological factors- seen in babies
* Parenting
*cultural variations
* Inhibitory Control
93
what is temperment
how a child responds to external stimulus- threshold for getting upset; positive or negative emotion
94
how does parenting impact emotional regulation
when a parent acknowledges, labels, and models emotions children are better able to regulate their emotions
- this modeling is important because it is innate in us to mimmic emotions
95
what are some of the different expressions of emotions based on culture
display rules
emotional regulations
96
what are cultural display rules
rules that outline emotions and how and whether emotions should even be displayed and how being in public impacts it
- japanese people show no emotion if they are in public; have a harder time distinguishing emotions on other people
97
what are some emotional regulation differences culturally
across cultures and especially genders there is a more or less appropriate expression of emotion in public
- ex: men crying; women being angry- not as accepted
98
ways to improve emotional regulation
1. situation selection
2.attentional deployment
3.cognitive change
4. response modulation
99
what is situation selection
being selective about your context and what you expose yourself to
100
what is attentional deployment
change your attention to something else; attempting to not thinking about it as much
101
what is cognitive change
- the most powerful strategy
- changing how you view or interpret a situation
102
what is response modulation
| physical
when you target your psychiolgical response; starting with your body and trying to calm yourself down that way
- breathing exercises, etc.
103
what percent of variability in humans make people more happy
10%- situations
50%- genetics
40%- they way you react
104
what impacts happiness
Purpose and Flow
* Exercise & Nutrition
* Relationships
* Helping others
* Gratitude
105
what is flow
a psychological state of complete immersion and energized focus in an activity, often called being "in the zone"
- usually something you enjoy and are good at
106
what do we get from the Gilbert satisfaction study
the more choices, and even reversibility people have in their lives the less happy that they are
107
what is the James-Lange Theory
Emotions result from the experience of physiological reactions in the body
108
what are the two parts of the stress appraisal theory
1. primary appraisal
2. secondary appraisal
109
what is the main difference between the James-Lange Thoeory and the Schachter-singer thery
in the SS theory there is the cognitive judgement of what the physiological response is telling you about your emotions; this can have a lot of error
110
what is the stress appraisal theory
a psychological model that explains how individuals perceive and respond to stressful events
111
when are people most stressed
when their primary appraisal outweighs their secondary appraisal of their ability to cope
112
what is primary appraisal
The initial evaluation of a stressor to determine its significance and potential threat. (what is at stake?
113
what is secondary appraisal
The evaluation of one's resources and coping abilities in relation to the perceived threat(can I cope?)
114
what is the general adaptation syndrome
when exposed to a potential threat, the body responds in three steps:
* Alarm reaction
* Stage of resistance
* Stage of exhaustion
115
what is the alarm reaction
The body perceives a stressor and releases hormones such as adrenaline and cortisol
- increased heart rate, blood pressure, and alertness occurs
116
what is the stage of resistance
The body adapts to the stressor and tries to maintain homeostasis.
- body remains in a heightened state of vigilance
117
what is the stage of exhaustion
If the stressor persists for too long, the body's resources become depleted
- can cause physical and mental health problems (acute vs chronic stress)
118
what are the two types of stress
acute vs chronic stress
119
what is acute stress
short-term stress that lasts for a limited period
- this is good because it provides a state of arousal when needed
120
what is chronic stress
long-term stress that lasts for months or even years
- can have negative health issues due to the constant feeling of 'fight or flight'
121
what is an allostatic load
activation of physiological systems in response to frequent or chronic stressors, which can damage the body
122
what are some of the negative impacts of chronic stress on the health
bad for your heart; weakens the immune system; slows down healing; increases inflammation (cortisol)
123
what are the two main factos that impact how peopel handle stress
1. personality traits: hostility vs. positive mindset
2. genes x environement: diathesis-stress; differential sensitivities; epigenetics
124
how does a positive mindset impact stress
how you interpret stressful situations impacts whether it becomes debilitating; when you see it as a challenge instead of impossible, it helps you better deal (growth mindset)
125
what is the diathesis-stress model
a person with a diathesis (genetic predisposition) encounters a stressful life event, they are more likely to develop a mental health disorder than someone without the predisposition. The severity of the stressor and the individual's coping mechanisms can also influence the likelihood of developing a disorder
126
what is the differential sensitivities hypothesis
proposes that individuals differ in their sensitivity to environmental influences, responding more strongly to both positive and negative experiences compared to others
- some people are just more sensitive than others
127
what are epigenetics
the study of how your environment and behaviors can change how your genes work without altering the underlying DNA sequence
128
what is one major positive strategy for dealing with stress
having social support will allow people to better deal with their stress, than those who deal with it alone
129
some habits for managing stress is
1. implementation intention
2. provide reward for success
3. sleep hygeine
4. find accountability
130
what is the implementation intention
?
131
what is learning?
An enduring change in behavior
resulting from prior experience
132
what are the two types of learning
1. associative
2. non-associative
133
what is associative learning
when a connection, or association, is made between two events
134
what are the two types of associative learning?
1. classical conditioning
2. operant conditioning
135
what is classical conditioning
A passive form of learning by which an association is made between a reflex-eliciting stimulus (e.g., food ) and other stimuli (e.g sound of a bell)
136
what is an operant conditioning
An active form of learning by which an
association is made between a stimulus (e.g., a treat) and a voluntary
response (e.g., sitting)
137
what was pavlov's experiement
demonstrated classical conditioning, where dogs were trained to associate a neutral stimulus (a bell) with an unconditioned stimulus (food) to produce a conditioned response (salivation)
- he would pair stimuli
138
what is the unconditioned stimulus
A stimulus that produces a reflexive response without prior learning
139
what is the unconditioned response
The response that is automatically generated by the unconditioned stimulus
140
what is the conditioned stimulus
A stimulus that has no prior positive or negative association but comes to elicit a response after being associated with the unconditioned stimulus
141
what is the conditioned response
A response that occurs in the
presence of the conditioned stimulus after an association between the conditioned and unconditioned stimulus is learned
142
what are the different characteristics of classical conditioning
1. acquisition
2. generalization
3. discrimination
4. extinction
5. spontaneous recovery
143
what is acquisition
The initial learning of an association between the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli during classical conditioning
144
what is generalization
The tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the condition stimulus, so that learning is not tied to narrowly to a specific stimulus
145
what is discrimination
Learning to respond to a particular stimulus but not similar stimuli, thus preventing overgeneralizations
146
what is extinction
An active learning process in which there is a weakening of the conditioned response to the conditioned stimulus in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus
147
what is spontaneous recovery
The reappearance of an extinct behavior after a delay
148
what is the residual plascticity hypothesis
the brain's ability to adapt (plasticity) even after damage, where the surviving neurons (residual structure) are still capable of recovery
149
why is spontaneous recovery possible
the residual plascticity hypothesis
150
what are the criteria for classical conditioning to be effective
1. needs to be useful at predicting
2. needs to have timely reward
151
what system is utilized to condition fear
fear is conditioned by the amygdala
152
what is preparedness
The species-specific biological predisposition to learn some associations more quickly than other associations
ex: more likley to associate nausea with food
153
what is operant conditioning
An active form of learning by which an association is made between a stimulus (e.g., a shock) and a voluntary response (e.g., a press of a button)
- Behaviors must be performed to get or avoid something
154
what is the law of effect
all behaviors have consequences
155
what are the componenets of operant conditioning
1. antecedents
2. behavior
3. consequences
156
what is antecedents
The stimuli that precede the behavior and signal the consequence
157
what is the behavior for operant conditioning
The voluntary action that takes place
158
what are the consequences of operant conditioning
The stimuli after the behavior that either increase or decrease
the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated
159
what are the two types of consequences of operant conditioning
1. reinforcements
2. punishment
160
what is a reinforcements
A consequence that increases the likelihood that a behavior
will be repeated
161
what is a punishements
A consequence that decreases the likelihood that a behavior will
be repeated
162
what are the different types of reinforcement
1. positive
- primary
-secondary
2. negative
163
what are the different types of punishment
1. positive
2. negative
164
what is a positive reinforcement
this means that you give them something inturn for a behavior that will lead it to increase
*primary- naturally associatd with survival (ex:food)
secondary-things that we have associated with the primary reinforcements (ex:money)
165
what is a negative reinforcement
a concept in psychology where a behavior is strengthened by the removal of an unpleasant or aversive stimulus
166
what is a positive punishment
adding an unpleasant or aversive stimulus after a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again
167
what is a negative punishment
to reduce a specific behavior or response by taking away some sort of favorable stimulus following that action
168
what is the reinforcement of successive approximations
rewarding behavior that is closed to the target behavior
169
what is instinctive drift
the tendency of an animal to revert to innate, instinctive behaviors that interfere with a learned or conditioned behavior
170
what is the premack principle
a behavioral concept stating that a more-preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less-preferred one
171
what is delay discounting
the tendency to devalue future rewards in favor of smaller, immediate ones
172
what is a partial reinforcement schedule
provides a reward or reinforcer only some of the time, not every time a desired behavior occurs, making it intermittent
- makes it a lot more long lasting
173
Is meyers brigg's reliable?
NO, about 50% chance of getting the same result
- the reason why you feel like it is accurate is due to confirmation bias, when you take it
174
Information about theory and perspectives is in the book
175
what was hippocartes belief on personaility and how one behaves
Our personalities are products of the liquids inside of us
176
why do we categorize people
we will be able to predict how they act
177
what dictates how we act
many people believe that past experiences, environments, and situations is what changes how we act
178
who is walter michele
he did the marshmellow test and he believed that personality is not a real construct that can be measured, rather just how past experiences change us
179
what is personality
a set of relatively consistent ways of thinking, feeling, and behaving that together explain why different people can react differently to the same situations
180
what are the 4 personality perspectives
1. psychoanalytic
2. social-learning
3. Trait theory
4. Humanistic Theory
181
what is the psychoanalytic perspective
posits that personality is shaped by unconscious forces and early childhood experiences (ruled by our needs and desires
182
what did the psychoanalytic perspective propose personality was made of
1. Id
2. Ego
3. Super ego
183
what is the id?
The instinct-driven, pleasure-seeking part of the mind, focused on immediate gratification
- seen from birth
184
what is the ego?
The rational mediator that balances the Id’s impulses with real-world constraints
184
what is the superego?
The moral conscience representing societal and parental standards, striving for ideal behavior
185
how does the ego relate to the Id and Superego?
The Ego negotiates between the impulsive Id and the judgmental Superego, often using defense mechanisms to reduce conflict or anxiety
186
which of the three psychoanalytic categories are we the most aware of
the ego, because it is mostly in the preconscious mind
187
why is there so much criticism around the psychoanalytic perspective?
because the Id and even the rest of the model, are things that people are unconscious of makes it impossible to empirically measure, which leads to
188
what is the defense mechanism?
the way in which the ego copes with the desires of the Id and the moral compass of the Superego
189
what are the 4 components of a persons defense mechanism?
1. displacement
2. projection
3. repression
4. denial
190
what is displacement?
a person redirects unacceptable feelings, impulses, or frustrations from their original, often threatening, source to a different, less threatening one
for ex: being angry at your mother but taking it out on your little brother
191
what is projection
a defense mechanism where an individual unconsciously attributes their own thoughts, feelings, and traits onto another person or group
ex: being insecure about being load or "too much" and so you criticize people who are like that as well
192
what is repression
an unconscious defense mechanism where the mind pushes distressing or unacceptable thoughts, memories, and feelings out of conscious awareness
193
what is the main criticism of repression
because there is no way for you to actually quantify and have empirical evidence of repession of memories, it is impossible to actually know if people do this.
194
what is denial
the refusal to acknowledge certain facts or situations that are perceived as unpleasant, painful, or threatening
- meant to allow people to deal wth stress and avoid overwhelming emotions
195
what is the trait perspective
the self as something to be known
- identifies traits that may explain behavior more methodically
196
what are some things that the trait perspective accomplished
- identifies traits that explain behavior
- looks for consistencies in behavior
- utilizes factor analysis
197
what is factor analysis
a statistical method used to simplify personality by identifying underlying, unobserved traits ("factors") that explain the correlations between a large number of observed behaviors and characteristics
198
what is the most prominent view of personality
the trait perspective
199
what are the 5 big personality traits that came from the trait perspective
1. Openness
2. Conscientiousness
3. Extroversion
4. Agreeableness
5. Neuroticism
200
what are some of the biological basis of extroversion
extroverts generally need more stimulus than introverts, this is probably due to genetics, for example things like seratonin and dopamine
- this is why they are much more respective to social situations
201
what are some of the traits of extroversion
they join in on conversation and social settings; talkative; active; affectionate
202
what are some traits of agreeableness
trusting, lenient, soft-hearted, good-natured
203
what are some traits of conscientiousness
hard-working, well-organized, punctual, conscientious
204
what are some traits of neuroticism
worried, tempermental, self-conscious, and emotional
--> meaning that there is no stability in the way that you act
205
what are some traits of openess
imaginative, creative, original, and curious
206
why is the big 5 personality test so much better than the meyers briggs test
it avoids being dichotomous; which means that you can socre high in some areas and low in others while also having some "medium" scores
- also none of the traits are mutually exlcusive
207
can a person's personality change
maybe, because inclinations are usually not very easy to change, but enough change in behavior can very much impact one's inclination when it comes to therapy
- however people have found that tho one may seem to change, when exposed to EXTREME stress people end up going back to their default inclinations
208
why has honestly and humility been added to the big 5 personality traits
the main reason is due to varying cultures and attempting to accomodate for them
209
why do older people's personality align so closely with their actions
as you get older the decreased neuroplasticity and just the fact that older people only associate with those that actually are very similar to them, leads to a decrease in the change in one's personality at this time
210
PSYCH 111
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