1
Q
developmental psychology
A
Examines how people change—physically, cognitively, socially, and emotionally—from infancy through old age.
2
Q
development can give us insight into human behavior because
A
- allows them to investigate the initial emergence of a skill, behavior, or cognitive ability
- allows us to track change through longitudinal studies to map out the trajectory of a skill, behavior, or disorder
- can create interventions when certain skills are typically acquired, and what factors disrupt that acquisition
3
Q
what is a nativist
A
a philosophical and psychological doctrine that suggests certain concepts, skills, or abilities are innate or hard-wired into the brain at birth, rather than being acquired solely through experience or learning.
4
Q
what is a cognitivist
A
a major school of thought that focuses on understanding the internal mental processes that mediate between a stimulus and a response.
5
Q
what is a behaviorist
A
a school of thought in psychology that asserts that all human and animal behavior is acquired through conditioning—that is, through interaction with the environment
- they only focus on observable and measurable behaviors and the environmental stimuli that produce them
6
Q
what is moral development?
A
Changes in how we reason about right and wrong, our attitudes and feelings toward moral transgressions, and our behavior when faced with moral issues
7
Q
what is the nativist view on morality
A
- ## we are born with a basic sense of morality
8
Q
what are some research studies that prove the nativist point of view of morality
A
- when babies were shown a scene with three “people” the helper, hinderer, and the main character, they were able to judge them and overall preferred the helper over any of the other figurines
- when babies were given the chance to help an adult that didnt ask for help and they recieved no reaward for it they were very likley to help which proved that babies have intrinsic, altruistic motivation to help others achieve their goals
- when a person does something wrong or witnesses a person that needs help and they don’t help them, everyone feels a sense of guilt which is NOT taught to them
9
Q
what is the social learning view on morality
A
children learn through observation, imitation, and contingencies
10
Q
what are some research studies that prove the social learning point of view of morality
A
- Bandura’s (studies how cognition impact how we learn and behave) Bobo Study, shows that when children view an adult doing something, even when not given instructions to copy, children will
- peer interaction facilitates moral development; meaning that when children are around their peers they are more likley to share/ do the right thing
- when parents reason with the child and pointing out the painful or harmful consequences of their actions for others or for the parent; they are likely to do better moral things
11
Q
what is the cognitive view on morality
A
children’s cognitive maturation facilitates moral development
12
Q
Kholberg’s stages of moral reasoning
A
proposed that moral development occurs in a fixed, universal sequence of three Levels
1. Preconventional (younger than 6)
- a)obey rules to avoid punishment
- b) conforms to get rewards and have favors returned
2. Conventional (7-11)
- a)conforms to avoid disaproval or dilike by others
- b) conforms to avoid censure by authorities
3. Postconventional (11)
- a) conforms to maintain communities; emphasis on individual rights
- b) individual princples of conscience
13
Q
Are there certain values that are universal?
A
- fairness and justice- people have inequity aversion, which describes an individual’s preference for fair outcomes and a dislike for outcomes perceived as unfair
- Honesty
- Harm to others
14
Q
what is an example of an experiemnet that shows inequity aversion
A
this is shown with the macequecs that were given different snacks for the same tasks and one of the monkeys got VERY mad
15
Q
Why is it so important to know that children start lying at the age of 4 years old
A
- in order for children to lie, they need to be able to have Theory of Mind so that they can understadn what another person does and does not know and also determine the impact of them lying to someone
- also we find that they have the ability for executive functioning
16
Q
what are the factors that affect moral development
A
- parenting: how they approach speaking on subjects of guilt, as well as pro-social behavior
- empathetic concern: when children see the impact on other peoples they have the innate reaction of sympathy and guilt
- Inhibitory control and Theory of Mind: the ability of child to lie
- culture: in many cultures community is VERY important compared to western individual rights, which has a large impact on moral development
17
Q
are children more or less likley to help if offered a reward
A
- children are 1) more likely to help if it is a collaborative activity and also if they aren’t rewarded for it
- when the parent has a neutral response the child is MUCH more likely to help rather than when they are praised and even more so when they are rewarded
18
Q
what are the milestones of moral development
A
- 6 months: children can discriminate between helpers and hinderers
- 18 months: infants show empathy and prosocial behavior
- 3 years: children understand moral vs conventional transgressions
- 5-7 years: children develop inequity aversion
- 10 years: children endorse white lies
- 12 years: adolescents become more involved in volunteer efforts
19
Q
what are the two types of attitudes/ beliefs (define them)
A
- Implicit: fast and automatic, hard to change, based on heuristics/emotion and experiences
- Explicit: deliberate, cognitively taxing, based on cognition/ reflection, emotion, and experiences
**implicit attitudes are not completely out of your consciousness; which can change implicit attitudes into explicit ones
20
Q
what is one proof of implicit judgments
A
a study was done where two men were shown and people were asked which one looks more compitent; this shows how we make quick judgements on people based on photos
- this initial judgment also aligned with who ended up winning and shows that though we may initially try to rationalize our implicit attitudes to match what we are thinking explicitly
–> may also point to the halo effect
21
Q
what is the halo effect?
A
a cognitive bias where a single positive trait (like attractiveness or a strong first impression) influences your overall judgment
- allows the more attractive person to be seen as better/ more compitent
22
Q
where do people’s beliefs and attitudes come from?
A
- brain heuristics
- experience
- personality traits and values
23
Q
what are brain heuristics
A
shortcuts the brain takes, to conserve resources, but also make the best decisions
24
Q
what are the aspects of brain heuristics that are needed
A
- preference for familiarity–> the more you are exposed to something, the more you tend to like it
- fundamental attribution error–> the way we make judgments about other is what we attribute to their internal characteristics, ignoring external situations (explains stereotypes)
- statistical learning–>our brain is a patern recognition machine; works through the type of data you are exposed to; shapes your attitudes toward others
25
why do stereotypes occur
1. categorization
2. essentialism
26
what is categorization
we are born to categorize everything around us, which allows us to quickly learn about things around us
27
what is essentialism
the belief that people have an essense of who they are that explains their behavior; this is what leads to the saying "stereotypes exist for a reason"
- this does however show miscategorization because much more variability in a group between groups
28
what is social identity theory
a person's sense of who they are is derived not just from their personal traits (personal identity), but also from the social groups they belong to (social identity)
- the core motivation behind this process is to achieve or maintain positive self-esteem by viewing one's own groups favorably.
29
what is ingroup favoritism
psychological tendency for individuals to favor their own group (the in-group) over other groups (the out-groups)
- people in power provide oppurtunity to those that look like you in your in-group
30
what is the Realistic Group Conflict Theory
- a highly influential theory in social psychology that explains the origins of prejudice, discrimination, and hostility between groups
- you start forming negative towards other groups when there is increased competition for resources
31
What are the two components of the Realistic Group Conflict Theory
1. Competition: the reason for Conflict, negative stereotypes, and antagonism between groups arise when two or more groups are in competition for valuable, limited resources; it would necessittate that the gain of one group is the loss of another
2. Fear: the groups in competition for scarce resources ended up making the other side a "threat", which then triggers fear
32
what is the result of competition from the Realistic Group Conflict Theory
- ingroup favoratism: positive attitudes toward the in-group
- outgroup hostility: negative attitudes, stereotypes, and discrimination against the competitor group
33
what are some ways of fighting stereotypes
1. contact hypothesis: the more that a person becomes in contact with members of another group, the more it reduced stereotypes especially when one the same level and they are able to understand people
2. perspective taking: get people to think about how people's experience can impact how/ who they are
34
what are the personality traits associated with political values
- openness to experience is associated with liberalism
- neuroticism is related to believing in conspiracy theories- increased emotionality, paranoia, and skepticism
- conscientious related to stronger immigration laws
35
Moral Foundations Theory: The pragmatic validity of moral pluralism. Graham, Haidt, and Nosek (2009)
proposes that human moral reasoning is built upon a small set of innate, universal psychological systems or "foundations."
1. Care/Harm
2. Fairness/Cheating
3. Loyalty/ Betrayal
4. Authority/ respect
5. Purity/ Sanctity
36
What are the brains main goals when it comes to social settings
1. Unite us into teams with those that we see that are similar to us
2. divide us against those that aren't
3. blind us in the truth- consistency
37
what is social loafing
the tendency for individuals to exter less effort on a atask when in a group
38
what is group homogeneity
a cognitive bias in which members of an in-group (one's own group) tend to perceive members of an out-group (a different group) as being more alike or "all the same" than they actually are
- very charateristic of stereotyping
39
what is group polarization
after a group discussion, the group's attitude toward a given issue becomes more extreme than the average attitude of its individual members before the discussion
- want to align with the perceived group norm
40
what is group think
a psychological phenomenon that occurs within a highly cohesive group where the desire for harmony, conformity, or consensus overrides a realistic appraisal of alternative courses of action.
41
what are some of the symptoms of groupthink
1. Illusion of Invulnerability- believes it is immune to failure and risk
2. Belief in Inherent Morality- assuming that your group's belief is inherently moral
3. Collective Rationalization- creating shared justification for their decisions
4. Stereotypes of Out-groups- makes it easy to dismiss their concerns and beliefs
5. Self-Censorship- suppress any dissenting doubts to avoid disrupting group harmony
6. Illusion of Unanimity- everyone seems to be on the same side because so many people stay quiet
7. Mindguards- member that take on the role of shielding the group from information that contradicts its consensus
42
why are people more likely to be friends with some people and not others
mainly because of physical proximity
- mere exposure effect
- chameleon effect
- vulnerability
43
what is the mere exposure effect
a psychological phenomenon by which people tend to develop a preference for things merely because they are familiar with them.
44
what is the chameleon effect
describe the nonconscious tendency for people to imitate the postures, gestures, mannerisms, and facial expressions of their interaction partners
- our brains are built for mimmicary, so the 7 people you have around you is truly who you become
45
who are people most attracted to?
they are also attracted to those that look like us, so they have similar levels of attractiveness, intelligetnce, values, or religions
- they also want people that are dependable, warm/kind, and intelligent
46
what are the two main pillars of a good relationship
1. Communication- The four Horseman
2. Perception
47
what are the 4 Horseman
1. Crticism- an attack on a partner's personality or character every sentence starts with "you always/never"
2. Contempt: It conveys disrespect and a feeling of superiority over one's partner; utilizes sarcasm, cynicism, name-calling, etc.
3. Defensiveness: attempts to defend themselves by rebutting the complaint, shifting blame, or playing the innocent victim
4. Stonewalling: when the listener withdraws from the interaction and shuts down emotionally and physically; often an automatic response to feeling emotionally "flooded"
48
what do couples fight most about
finances, physical intimacy, division of labor, and kids
49
what is cognitive atributions
how you explain the behavior of other
50
what is confirmation bias
the tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one's existing beliefs or theories
51
what are the rose-colored glasss
the phenomenon where individuals hold idealized, positive illusions about their romantic partners
- it promoted relationship satisfacton, buffers against conflict, and this is due to trust and security
- it is also because idealizing their partner then leads to their partner trying to become their ideal self
52
what is social psychology
the study of how social context as well as broader cultural environments influence people's thoughts, feelings, and actions
53
what are some of the examples of social influences
1. Conformity
2. Compliance
3. Obedience
4. Bystander Effect: a phenomenon where the presence of other people inhibits an individual from intervening in an emergency situation
54
what is conformity
mimicking or adopting another's behavior or belief as a response to some real or imagined social pressure
55
what are social norms
patterns of behavior, traditions, beliefs, and preferences that are accpeted and reinforced by others and influence our behavior
56
what is automatic mimicry
we unconsciously copy the behaviors of others; for example bosy posture, accent, yawning, and mannerisms
57
what is informational conformity
copying others' behavior to behave correctly or gain additional insight into the world
58
what is normative social influence
conforming to gain approval or avoid disapproval from others
59
what is the asch's conformity study
- It was designed to investigate the extent to which an individual's opinions and behaviors are influenced by a simple, unambiguous group majority
- they were asked to match the line that was the same length, but what they found is that when an entire group would say the wrong answer the participant is MUCH more likley to conform, especially if they say it out loud
60
what are the factors affecting conformity
- size of group, status, knowledge and expertise, need to belong, familiarity, culture, and gender
61
what is compliance
- a change in behavior in response to a direct request from another person or group
62
what is the norm of reciprocity
we should provide benefits to those who have or will provide benefits for us
63
what is the door-in-the-face technique
asking for a large favor first so that the person is more likely to comply to a smaller favor
64
what is the foot-in-the-door face
asking a small favor first before asking for a bigger favor or request
65
what are highlighting norms
pointing out how most people does or should behave "everybody is doing it"
66
what is the Milgram Obedience Experiment
- investigate the extent to which people would obey an authority figure, even when the commands conflicted with their personal conscience and caused distress to another person
- the person that was administrated the shocks felt as though they were an agentic state displacing personal responsibility
- majority of people went to the maximum shock level
- Foot-in-the-Door
67
what is the Bystander Effect
a phenomenon where the presence of other people inhibits an individual from intervening in an emergency situation
- usually occurs due to diffusion of responsibility and pluralistic ignorance
68
what is a diffusion of responsibility
the number of bystanders increases, the personal responsibility that any one individual feels to intervene decreases. Everyone assumes someone else will take action
69
what is pluralistic ignorance
the initial ambiguity of an emergency, bystanders look to the reactions of others. If no one else is acting alarmed, individuals assume the situation is not an emergency, leading everyone to stand still
70
how to help mitigate the bystander effect
1. notice when someone is in need
2. interpret the event as an emergency
3. take personal responsibility for helping
4. know what needs to be done
5. follow-through
6. single out a person and make direct requests
71
why do people help
- kin selection
- norm of reciprocity
- empathy
- cooperation
- personal gain
72
what is a psychological disorder
Clinically significant disturbance in an
individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior” that is “usually associated with significant distress or disability in social, occupational, or other important activities
73
how many people live wth mental disorders
about 1.095 billion people; however, there is a pretty equal proportion of men and women who have specific mental disorders, except women dominate in eating disorders, and men in ADHD and Autism
74
why is autism and ADHD found so much more in men?
- men are the standard for which they are being tested, and women are usually just different in the way that they present
75
what is psychopathy?
What qualifies?
The scientific study of psychological disorders or the disorders themselves
- To qualify as a psychological disorder, a syndrome must not be:
1. An expectable response to common stressors and losses
2. A culturally approved response to a particular event
3. Simple deviations from social norms
76
how do psychologicalist assess these psychological disorders
1. clinical interview
2. self-report questionnaire
3. projective tests
77
what are the benefits to labeling
- improved treatment
- improves research by allowing collaboration and generalization acorss settings
- reduced confusion for individuals with a puzzling set of symptoms
78
what are the costs of labeling
- can create a stigma
- creates a framework that reduces reaserach understanding of the real overlap between disorders
- encourages researchers to think of psychological disorderd as fixed and enduring diagnoses
79
what is autism spectrum disorder
- a neurodevelopmental disorder that is estimated to impact 1% of the population worldwide
- characterstics of deficits in social communication and restricted, repetitive patterns of behavior, interests or Activities
80
what is social-emotional recirpocity
Challenges with the back-and-forth flow of conversation, initiation of social interactions, or sharing of interests and emotions; Difficulties in understanding and using nonverbal cues
81
misconceptions surrounding causes Autism
many people have claimed that autism is caused by vacines, which has been repeatedly discredited
82
what actually causes autism
1. genetic component: parents with previous children with ASD are more likley to have another with ASD
2. neurobiological factors: the way that the brain developements that occur in very early life mainly in areas such as the amygdala, hippocampus, and cerebellum
83
how is autism diagnosed
- screeners using early detection tools
84
what is ADHD
- estimated that 8.5% of children in the US have ADHD
- characteristics such as impulsivity, hyperactivity, and inattention
85
what is required to be diagnosed with ADHD
- at least 6 inattention symptoms and at leas 6 hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms
86
how does one get diagnosed with ADHD
- clinical interview
- Conner's rating scales, which is used to assesses inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity, learning problems, executive functioning, aggression, peer relations, anxiety and depression
- vanderbilt assessment scales: ask the informant to rate the degree to which the symptoms impair the child's academic and social functioning
- Adult ADHD Self Report Scale: an excellent initial filter for adult patients who may have been missed during childhood
- Continuous Performance Tests:a specific type of computerized, standardized assessment designed to objectively measure an individual's sustained attention, vigilance, and impulsivity
-Working Memory :a limited-capacity system responsible for temporarily holding and manipulating information needed to complete complex cognitive tasks. It is often described as the mental workspace of the brain
-Executive Functioning:n umbrella term for a set of higher-level cognitive skills that control and manage other cognitive processes
-Processing Speed: the rate at which a person can take in information, understand it, and begin a response
87
what are ways to help mitigate ADHD
- medical stimulants
- behavioral interventions
- environmental supports: routines
88
what is multifinality
when there is one cause and leads to multiple outcomes
89
what is equifinality
when there are multiple causes, which leads to one outcome
90
what is an anxiety disorder
- Excessive, frequent, and persistent fear and
anxiety
- Often associated with avoidance
- Cause significant distress and/or impairment in
multiple areas of life
- Most prevalent category of disorders
- Earliest disorders to develop (on average
91
what is a phobia
- fear of a specific object or situation that is intense, immediate, siproportionate, persistent
- the feared object is often avoided
92
what is social anxiety
when a person has an extreme fear when it comes to social relationships; this occurs due to the fact that we need social relationships to survive and that they are originally ambiguous and people are intolerant of uncerntainty (especially anxious people)
93
what is exposure therapy
Exposure therapy is a highly effective type of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) specifically designed to help people confront their fears and anxieties in a safe, controlled environment
94
what is PTSD
- the exposure to traumatic events (threatened dealth, serius injury, or sexual violence)
- characteristics include: recurrent intrusion, persistent avoidance, and negative alterations in cognition and mood (also feel unable to experience positive emotions)
95
what is prolonged exposure therapy
learn to safely approach rather than avoid trauma-related memories and stimuli
96
what is eye movement desensitization and reprocessing (EMDR)
similar to PE with an added eye movement component
97
whta is cognitive processing Therapy (CPT)
modify unhelpful beliefs related to traumatic event
98
what is Generalized Anxiety Disorder
- excessive anxiety/ worry
- requires 6 months to be considered GAD
- often comorbid with depression
99
what are ways to treat GAD
- CBT
-Exposure Therapy
- medication- including benzodiazepines
100
what are medical side effects
Benzodiazepines: enhance effect of GABA, sedation, relaxation, but it can also lead to long term dependencies
SSRIs: increases the impact of SSRIs because it stays in the synaptic cleft; low risk of abuse and addiction
101
what is OCD
-recurrent distressing/ intrusive thoughts; goes against what the person wants/ believes in
- we also find that the compulsions that come from repetitive behaviors that the person feels driven to do and they are excessive and unrealistic
102
how does OCD occur in the brain
the brain gets accustomed to stimulate a specific network of pattern, which means that it can get stuck in dysfunctional patterns
103
what is transcranial magnetic stimulation
magnets are used to gradually change brain network activities
104
what is deep brain stimulation
stimulator is permanently surgically implanted, which interrupts dysfunctional network pattern
PSYCH 111
flashcards
Decks in class (3)
# Cards
