1
Q
Hyperosmotic solution
A
- solution has more solute
- cell has less solute
- water flows out of cell
- cell shrinks, dries out, dies
2
Q
hyposmotic solution
A
- solution has less solute
- water flows into cell
- cell expands, explodes, lyses
3
Q
The main contributors of osmolarity in blood and sea water are ____ & ____
A
sodium and chloride
4
Q
In marine (saltwater) environments, animals tend to ___ salts and ___ water
A
gain salts, lose water
5
Q
in freshwater environments, animals tend to ___ salts and ___ water
A
lose salts, gain water
6
Q
because many animals move between environment they must be able to ___
A
alter their homeostatic mechanisms
7
Q
Two strategies to meet osmotic challenges are ______
A
- Osmoconformer
- Osmoregulator
8
Q
characteristics of an osmoconformer
A
- internal and external osmolarity are similar
- e.g.: marine invertebrates (clam)
9
Q
two types of osmoconformers
A
- ionoconformer
- ionoregulator
10
Q
ionoconformer
A
same ions and same osomolarity
11
Q
ionoregulator
A
different ions but same osmolarity
12
Q
characteristics of an osmoregulator
A
- osmolarity constant regardless of external environment
- most vertebrates
13
Q
stenohaline
A
- can tolerate a narrow range of external ion levels
14
Q
euryhaline
A
- can tolerate a wide range of external ion levels
15
Q
three groups of solutes
A
- perturbing solute
- compatible solute
- counteracting solutes
16
Q
perturbing solute
A
- damages enzyme activity
- lowers enzyme binding affinity
- increases Km
17
Q
compatible solute
A
- increase does not really effect enzyme activity or Km
18
Q
counteracting solutes
A
- Two solutes that balance each other’s activity out
19
Q
Seawater fish…
A
- hyperosmolar environment
- lose water through osmosis through gills and other parts of body surface
- drink water
- gills to remove NaCl
- urine - small volume
- bony fish use gills to remove sodium chloride
- expel ions in feces as well
- Excretion of salt ions and small amounts of water in urine
20
Q
Freshwater fish…
A
- generate large amounts of diluted urine
- lose ions
- don’t drink more water
- gills - uptake NaCl
- urine - large volume, highly diluted
- uptake of water and some ions in food
21
Q
Apical Membrane faces____
A
faces environment
22
Q
basolateral membrane faces___
A
faces internals
23
Q
four features of transport epithelia
A
- asymmetrical distribution of membrane transporters
- cells interconnected, impermeable, little leaking
- high cell diversity
- abundant mitochondria
24
Q
transcellular transport:
A
transport in, cross cell, leave other side
25
paracellular transport:
some transport that occurs in the tight junctions between cells
26
aquaporins allow ____ molecules per minute to pass
1 billion
27
Fish gill lamellae are composed of
- mitochondria-rich chloride cells
- pavement cells (m. rich)
- pavement cells (m. poor)
28
fish that migrate between saltwater and freshwater
diadromous
29
____ functions change during migration of fish between environments
ion transport
30
ion transport changes in fish are controlled by____
hormones
31
land animals can reduce water with layers of ____
hydrophobic molecules
32
Three types of hydrophobic coatings on land animals
- mucus
- cornified stratum corneum with keratin (e.g.: amniotes)
- cuticle with chitin (e.g.: arthropods)
33
Three sources of water - land animals
- dietary water
- metabolic water (oxidative phosphorylation)
- drinking
34
mL water gain (rat)
- food (0.2mL)
| - metabolism (1.8mL)
35
mL water loss (rat)
- feces (0.09mL)
- urine (0.45mL)
- evaporation (1.46mL)
36
mL water gain (human)
- food (750mL)
- liquid (1500mL)
- metabolism (250mL)
37
mL water loss (human)
- feces (100mL)
- urine (1500mL)
- Evaporation (900mL)
38
3 kinds of nitrogen excretion
- ammonium
- uric acid
- urea
39
3 categories of animals based on nitrogen excretion method
- ammonioteles (ammonium) [invertebrates, molluscs, aq)
- uricoteles (uric acid) [arthropods, reptiles, birds]
- ureoteles (urea) [all mammals, some bony fish]
40
ammonia excretion advantages
- deamination of amino acids
| - requires little energy (1 ATP)
41
ammonia excretion disadvantages
- highly toxic
| - requires large volumes of water to store and excrete
42
uric acid excretion advantages
- few toxic effects
| - can be excreted in small volume of water
43
uric acid excretion disadvantages
- energetically expensive (7 ATP)
44
urea excretion advantages
- only slightly toxic
| - relatively inexpensive to produce
45
urea excretion disadvantages
- perturbing solute
46
6 roles of vertebrate kidneys in homeostasis
- ion balance
- osmotic balance
- blood pressure
- pH balance
- excretion of metabolic wastes and toxins
- hormone production
47
nephron is composed of
- renal tubule
| - vasculature (system of blood vessels)
48
4 processes of urine production
- filtration (at glomerulus)
- reabsorption (specific molecules in filtrate removed)
- secretion (specific molecules added to the filtrate)
- excretion (urine excreted from body)
49
kidney filtration
- liquid components of blood filtered into bowman's capsule
- water and small solutes cross glomerular wall
- blood cells and large macromolecules are not filtered
50
glomerular capillaries are very _____
leaky
51
___ with ____ form filtration structure
podocytes with foot processes
52
_________ control blood pressure and filtration within glomerulus
mesangial cells
53
filtrate flows from Bowman's capsule into ______
proximal tubule
54
primary urine
initial filtrate filtered in bowman's capsule (is isosomotic to blood)
55
most ___ and ___ in primary urine is reabsorbed using ___ and ____
water, salt
| transport proteins, energy
56
renal threshold
concentration of a specific solute that will overwhelm reabsorptive capacity
57
rate of reabsorption is limited by _______
number of transporters
58
each zone of the nephron has ________ for ____ solutes
transporters for specific solutes
59
kidney secretion
- reverse of reabsorption
| - molecules are removed from blood and transported into filtrate
60
secreted molecules in the kidney
K+, NH4+, H+, pharmaceuticals, water-soluble vitamins
61
secretion requires _______ and ______
transport proteins, energy
62
Tubule regions of the kidney
- proximal tubule
- loop of henle
- distal tuble
- collecting duct
63
proximal tubule
- most of solute and water reabsorption
64
loop of henle
- descending limb
| - ascending limb
65
distal tubule
- reabsorption completed for most solutes
66
collecting duct
- drains multiple nephrons
| - carries urine to renal pelvis
67
Descending limb is permeable to ____
H2O
68
Descending limb...
- water is reabsorbed
- volume of primary urine decreases
- primary urine becomes more concentrated
69
Ascending limb is impermeable to ____
H2O
70
Ascending limb...
- ions are reabsorbed
| - primary urine becomes dilute
71
reabsorbed ions accumulate in the _______
interstitial fluid (creates osmotic gradient in the medulla)
72
blood vs. filtrate in loop of henle runs ______
countercurrent
73
Distal tubule can reabsorb ____ and ____
salts and water
74
distal tubule can secrete _______
potassium
75
Transport function in distal tubule controlled by _____
hormones
76
____________ increases Ca2+ reabsorption
parathormone
77
____________ increases K+ secretion
aldosterone
78
after urine is produced, it leaves____ and enters _____ via _____
kidney, urinary bladder, ureters
79
urine leaves bladder via ______
urethra
80
opening and closing of urethra sphincters controlled by _________
spinal cord reflex arc (micturition reflex) (can be influenced by voluntary controls)
81
osmotic concentration of final urine depends on ________
permeability (aquaporins) in collecting duct
82
collecting duct permeability is regulated by ______-
vasopressin
83
when collecting duct is impermeable...
- water not reabsorbed
| - dilute urine excreted
84
when collecting duct is permeable...
- water reabsorbed from collecting duct
| - concentrated urine excreted
85
Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR) determined by____
pressure across glomerular wall
86
three main forces determining GFR
- glomerular capillary hydrostatic pressure
- Bowman's capsule hydrostatic pressure
- Oncotic pressure - osmotic pressure due to protein concentration in blood
87
Intrinsic regulators of GFR
- Myogenic regulation
- tubuloglomuerular feedback
- mesangial control
88
Myogenic regulation
- constriction/dilation of afferent arteriole
89
tubuloglomerular feedback
- juxtaglomerular apparatus
90
________ cells in distal tubule
macula densa
91
________ cells in afferent arteriole
juxtaglomerular
92
_______ cells of distal tubule control diameter of ____________
macula densa cells, afferent arteriole
93
extrinsic regulators of GFR
- hormones
vasopressin (ADH)
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone pathway (RAA)
94
Vasopressin increases ___________
cell permeability
95
Aldosterone Stimulates ________-
Na+ reabsorption
96
Juxtaglomerular cells secrete enzyme ____
renin
97
3 ways secretion of renin is controlled
- baroreceptors in jux. cells responding to low BP
- sympathetic neurons in CV control center of medulla oblongata trigger renin (resp. to low BP)
- macula densa in distal tubule respond to decreases in flow by releasing paracrine signal inducing Jux. cell release
98
Renin is secreted when ___________ or ________
BP, GFR is lower than normal
99
Renin converts ________ to __________
angiotensinogen, angiotensin I
100
_________ converts Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II
ACE (angiotensin converting enzyme)
101
Diet Energy Flowchart
Gross energy > Digestible energy > metabolizable energy > net energy
102
four categories of essential nutrients
- essential amino acids
- essential fatty acids
- vitamins
- minerals
103
an adequate diet must supply...
- chemical energy
- organic molecules as building blocks
- essential nutrients
104
there are ____ essential amino acids
8
105
animal proteins are ______
complete (include all 8 essential AAs)
106
plant proteins are ______
incomplete (lacking 1 or more essential AA)
107
Animals can make almost all fatty acids from ____
Acetyl CoA
108
Omega 3s must be ingested as ____________
linolenic (18:3 omega 3) (plant seeds/fish oils)
109
Omega 6s must be ingested as _________
linolenic (18:2 omega 6) (plant seeds)
110
Primary function of Vitamin B complex
coenzymes in key metabolic processes
111
primary function of vitamin C
production of connective tissue
112
Four fat-soluble vitamins
A,D,E,K
113
Vitamin A:
visual pigments of eye
114
Vitamin D:
aids in calcium absorption, bone formation
115
Vitamin E:
protect membrane phospholipids from oxidation
116
Vitamin K:
blood-clotting
117
Excessive amounts of fat-soluble vitamins are deposited in ________
body fat
118
Primary Minerals
- calcium (nerves and muscles)
- phosphorus (cytochromes, cell. respiration)
- iron (cell. resp, oxygen binding in blood cells)
- iodine (thyroid hormones)
- sodium, potassium, chloride (nerve function, osmol. balance)
119
Malnourishment
diet lacking in essential nutrients
120
rice diet leads to
vitamin A deficiency
121
4 layers of GI track cells
- mucosa
- submucosa
- circular smooth muscle
- longitudinal smooth muscle
122
mucous neck cells
secrete mucous to protect cells from acidic content
123
parietal cells
secrete hydrochloric acid
124
chief cells
secrete the protease pepsin
125
enteroendrocrine cells
secrete hormones into the blood
126
________ is the major site of digestion and nutrient absorption
small intestine
127
three primary segments of the small intestine
- duodenum (primary site of digestion)
- jejunum
- ileum
128
cell types in the villi of the intestine
- enterocytes
- goblet cells
- enteroendocrine cells
- paneth cells
129
two ways to increase surface area in the small intestine
- increasing gut length
| - increasing surface undulations
130
exocrine pancreas secretes
bicarbonate
131
digestion enzymes
- lipases (breaks down triglycerides/phospholipids into fatty acids)
- proteases (proteins into shorter poly peptides)
- amylases (polysacc. into oligosacc.)
- nucleases (break down DNA into nucleotides)
132
digestion starts in _______
mouth
133
saliva in the mouth produces ______
amylase (enzyme that degrades carbohydrates)
134
functions of saliva
- lubricates food
- dissolves food so nutrients can bind to gustatory receptors
- cleanses the mouth with antimicrobial properties
- contain enzymes that initiate digestion
- salivation is controlled by nerve signals (Para: stimulates, sympathetic: inhibits)
135
Bile
- exocrine secretion into intestine
- digestive chemicals/liver waste products
- produced in liver
- stored in gallbladder
136
bile is made up of
- phospholipids (aid in the uptake of lipids)
| - bile salts (emulsify fats)
137
____ breaks proteins into large polypeptides
pepsin
138
_______ breaks large polypeptides into dipeptides and amino acids
trypsin, chymotrypsin, carboxypeptidase
139
carbohydrate transport changes
high glucose levels cause GLUT transporters to be attached to apical side of cell (by enterocytes), increasing glucose uptake
140
3 hormones that control appetite
- leptin (secreted by white adipose tissue when high lipid content)
- ghrelin (secreted by stomach when empty, stims. appetite)
- peptide YY (secreted by colon when full, suppress appetite)
141
neurotransmitters that stimulate appetite
- neuropeptide Y
- agouti-related peptide
- gamma amino butyric acid (GABA)
142
neurotransmitter that suppresses appetite
- proopiomelanocortin (POMC)
143
Gut motility is controlled by_______
nerves and hormones
144
pacemaker cells controlling gut motility
interstitial cells of Cajal
145
resting muscle tone
- controls lumen diameter
| - regulated by intrinsic pathways and NT release
146
nerve network between smooth muscle layers in intestine
Myenteric plexus (receives signals from CNS)
147
optimal speed of gut motility
- fast enough to minimize amount of indigestible material in the GI tract
- slow enough to allow time for digestion and assimilation
- rate varies according to diet
148
period immediately after feeding is called
postprandial period
149
Starvation response
- conserve glucose to protect glucose-dependent tissues (example: nervous tissue)
- muscles shift to lipid metabolism
- after lipid and glucose stores used up, protein breakdown accelerates
- amino acids are converted to fatty acids and carbs
- degradation of skeletal muscle
150
Hyperphagy
animals experiencing phases where they eat more than usual
151
BMI calculation
body weight (kg)/body length^2 (m^2)
152
2 types of asexual reproduction
- clones
| - parthenogenesis
153
clones
- buds form from somatic tissue
| - single individual can produce a colony
154
parthenogenesis
- ova and the female reproductive system
| - no male gamete required (e.g. whiptail lizard)
155
hermaphroditism
- capacity to produce both eggs and sperm
- simultaneous hermaphrodites
- serial hermaphrodites
156
simultaneous hermaphrodites
- can produce eggs and sperm
157
serial hermaphrodites
- change sex in response to environmental cues
158
protogynous
- females becoming males
159
proandrous
- males becoming females
160
why sexual reproduction?
- generates genomic variation at three levels
| - creates population of distinct genotypes
161
5 elements of sexual reproduction
- sex determination
- gametogenesis
- mating
- fertilization
- development and growth
162
sex determination - mammals
- presence of Y chromosome
- male: XY
- female: XX
163
sex determination - birds/butterflies
- female: ZW
| - male: ZZ
164
sex determination - honeybee
- fertilized become: females
| - unfertilized become: males
165
Sex determination can be impacted by ______
temperature
166
in TSD, cold weather causes more _______ offspring, warm weather causes more_______ offspring
Cold:
Warm:
167
3 reproductive strategies (determined by fate of Ova)
- ovipary
- vivipary
- ovovivipary
168
ovipary
- ova expelled from body
- all dev. occurs externally using egg for resources
- external fert: fish
- internal fert: birds/reptiles
169
vivipary
- young develop within female
- fertilization internal
- mammals and sporadically in others
170
ovo-vivipary
idk fam
171
reproductive hormones are responsible for
- development
- sexual maturation
- gametogenesis
- mating
172
GnRH synthesized/released from ________
hypothalamus
173
GnRH delivered to ________
anterior pituitary
174
GnRH regulates _____________ synthesis and release
FSH/LH
175
Gonadotropins are _____ hormones that control _____ hormone synthesis in ____
protein, steroid, gonads
176
3 examples of gonadotropins
FSH,LH,hCG
177
______ steroid hormones produced in male gonads
androgens (example: testosterone)
178
_______ steroid hormones produced in female gonads
estrogens (example: estradiol)
179
Male Reproductive tract pathway
- seminiferous tubules
- efferent ductules
- epididymis
- vas deferens
- seminal vesicle
- prostate gland
- bulbourethral gland
180
________ are interstitial cells that produce testosterone
leydig cells
181
__________ are spermatoza in various stages of development
spermatogenic cells
182
______- cells that fill gaps between spermatogenic cells and serve many purposes
sertoli cells
183
3 things that happen when spermatids become sperm
- lose much of their cytoplasm
- develop an axoneme at base of flagellum
- condense DNA in nucleus
184
sperm mature and gain capacity to swim in the _______
epididymis
185
things added to sperm during ejaculation
- alkaline seminal fluid (seminal vessicles)
- nutrients, mainly citrate (prostate)
- mucus for lubricant (bulbourethral gland)
186
Erection control pathway
- Nitrous Oxide from neuron
- Guanylate cyclase activates
- GTP to cGMP
- PKG activates
- vascular smooth muscles relax
187
two ways to affect sperm activity
- chemokinetic molecules
| - chemotaxic molecules
188
chemokinetic molecules stimulate ______
sperm to swim faster
189
chemotaxic molecules stimulate ______
sperm to swim towards high concentrations of the molecule
190
_________ stores sperm long-term in female
spermatheca
191
Chorion:
outermost layer; gas exchange
192
Amnion:
surrounds embryo; fluid that acts as cushion, provides favorable ionic/osmotic environment
193
Allantois:
vascularized, toilet, nitrogenous waste
194
yolk sac:
surrounds yolk, secretes digestive enzymes
195
yolk:
provides nutrients, proteins/lipids
196
estrous cycle
- reproductivity coincides with specific phase of cycle
| - minimal uterine tissue lost
197
menstrual cycle
- reproductivity coincides with many phases of cycle
| - substantial uterine tissue lost
198
4 cycles of estrous cycle
- estrus (in heat)
- metestrus (CL forms, U-line begins appearing)
- diestrus (CL regression, U-line reorganized)
- proestrus (follicles grow, duration of 1-21 days depending on species)
199
3 phases of menstrual cycle
- follicular (increasing GnRH/FSH/estrogen)
- ovulation (oocyte breaks off)
- luteal (CL forms, increased progesterone)
200
two types of gestation
- altricial
| - precocial
201
altricial gestation
- short period
- large litters
- young not fully developed
202
precocial gestation
- long period
- fewer offspring
- young fully developed
BIO 225
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