1
Q
What are the requirements and why are they important? for a living organism
A
-water, metabolic processes
-food, nutrients for energy
-oxygen, cellular respiration
-heat, controls rate
-pressure, breathing
1
Q
Components of homeostatic regulation?
A
Receptor (sensor): Detects change (e.g., temperature receptors in skin)
Control center: Decision-maker, sets point (e.g., hypothalamus)
Effector: Responds to restore balance (e.g., sweat glands, muscles)
1
Q
Negative vs Positive Feedback
A
Negative feedback: Corrects deviation; most common.
Example: Body temperature regulation.
Positive feedback: Increases deviation; self-amplifying.
Example: Blood clotting, uterine contractions during childbirth.
1
Q
Define electrolyte and salt. Give examples.
A
Electrolyte: Releases ions in water (NaCl, KCl).
Salt: Ionic compound formed from acid + base (NaCl).
1
Q
What do atomic weight and atomic number indicate?
A
Atomic number: Number of protons.
Atomic weight: Average mass of protons + neutrons.
1
Q
What are bulk and trace elements? Give examples.
A
Bulk elements: Needed in large amounts (O, C, H, N, Ca, P).
Trace elements: Needed in small amounts (Fe, Zn, I, Cu).
1
Q
What does it mean when an element is reactive or inert?
A
Reactive: Incomplete valence shell; forms bonds easily.
Inert: Full valence shell; stable and nonreactive.
1
Q
Difference between acid and base?
A
Acid: Releases H⁺ ions.
Base: Releases OH⁻ or accepts H⁺.
1
Q
Define molecules and chemical bonds.
A
Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded.
Chemical bond: Attraction between atoms that holds them together.
1
Q
Define and give examples of synthesis, decomposition, exchange, and reversible reactions.
A
Synthesis (A+B→AB): Building; e.g., protein formation.
Decomposition (AB→A+B): Breaking down; digestion.
Exchange (AB+CD→AD+CB): Swapping components.
Reversible (A+B⇌AB): Can go forward or backward.
1
Q
What does the pH scale measure?
A
Hydrogen ion concentration.
2
Q
What are buffers?
A
Substances that minimize pH changes.
3
Q
Differences between organic and inorganic compounds? Examples.
A
Organic: Contain carbon & hydrogen (carbs, lipids, proteins).
Inorganic: Lack C–H bonds (water, salts, CO₂).
4
Q
What is a carbohydrate and its roles?
A
Sugars/starches; provide energy, store energy.
4
Q
What are lipids?
A
Fats/oils; long-term energy, membranes, hormones.
4
Q
Difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
A
Saturated = no double bonds; solid.
Unsaturated = double bonds; liquid.
5
Q
List three functions of proteins.
A
Enzymes, structure, transport, communication.
5
Q
Describe primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure
A
Primary: Amino acid sequence.
Secondary: Helices/sheets.
Tertiary: 3D folding.
Quaternary: Multiple subunits
5
Q
What are nucleic acids? What is a nucleotide?
A
Nucleic acids: DNA & RNA; store/process genetic information.
Nucleotide: Sugar + phosphate + nitrogen base.
6
Q
What are enzymes? How do they work?
A
Proteins that speed reactions by lowering activation energy. They bind specific substrates.
7
Q
What functional types of proteins are found in the membrane?
A
Receptors, enzymes, channels, carriers, identity markers, and adhesion molecules.
7
Q
What are cells? What is cellular differentiation?
A
Cells are the basic structural and functional units of life. Cellular differentiation is the process by which cells become specialized by turning certain genes on or off.
7
Q
lysosomes
A
Digestive enzymes; breaks waste.
8
Q
vesicle
A
Transport sacs.
8
golgi
Modifies and packages proteins.
8
Peroxisome
Detox; breaks down peroxides.
9
What is the cytoskeleton? Describe its components.
Internal protein framework containing-
Microfilaments: actin; movement.
Microtubules: tubulin; structure, transport.
Intermediate filaments: stability.
10
What is a centrosome?
Region with two centrioles that organize microtubules and aid in cell division.
11
Nuclear pores
passageways
12
Nucleoplasm
nuclear fluid
12
Nucleolus
ribosome production
13
Chromatin
DNA + proteins
14
Diffusion
movement from high → low concentration
14
Facilitated diffusion
uses channel/carrier proteins.
15
Osmosis
diffusion of water
15
transcytosis?
movement across a cell
16
Osmotic pressure
force needed to stop osmosis
17
Describe filtration and active transport.
Filtration: movement by pressure. Active transport: uses ATP to move substances against gradient
17
hypotonic vs hypertonic
Hypotonic: water enters cell; Hypertonic: water leaves cell
18
endocytosis vs exocytosis?
Endocytosis: bringing substances in, Exocytosis: releasing substances
19
Briefly describe the cell cycle and phases of mitosis.
Cell cycle: Interphase (G1, S, G2) + Mitosis + Cytokinesis.
Mitosis: Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase.
20
apoptosis?
programmed cell death.
21
Describe DNA replication.
DNA unwinds, complementary bases pair, two identical strands form.
22
Describe dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis.
Dehydration synthesis builds molecules by removing water; hydrolysis breaks molecules using water.
22
Differentiate anabolism and catabolism
Anabolism builds molecules; catabolism breaks them down.
23
What are enzymes? How do they control reactions?
Enzymes are proteins that speed reactions by lowering activation energy.
24
What are vitamins? Why important?
Vitamins act as coenzymes that help enzymes function.
25
What are metabolic pathways?
Series of enzyme-controlled steps forming a product.
26
Define phosphorylation.
Adding a phosphate to ADP to make ATP.
27
Aerobic vs anaerobic respiration?
Aerobic uses oxygen and makes ~36–38 ATP; anaerobic does not use oxygen and makes ~2 ATP.
28
List aerobic pathways in order and location.
Glycolysis (cytosol), Krebs cycle (mitochondria), Electron Transport Chain (mitochondrial membrane).
28
What pathway is used in anaerobic respiration?
Glycolysis.
29
What is the anaerobic by-product?
Lactic acid.
30
What is a gene? Describe transcription and translation.
Gene: DNA sequence coding for a protein.
Transcription: DNA → mRNA.
Translation: mRNA → protein.
31
epithelial simple
Simple squamous – diffusion (lungs).
Simple cuboidal – secretion/absorption (kidneys).
Simple columnar – absorption; may have microvilli (intestines).
Pseudostratified columnar – secretion; ciliated (trachea).
31
What are the three types of intercellular junctions?
Tight junctions – prevent substances from passing between cells.
Desmosomes – provide strong attachment between cells.
Gap junctions – allow ions/molecules to pass directly between cells for communication.
31
Where is epithelial tissue found and what are its features?
Found lining organs, covering surfaces, forming glands.
Features: Apical surface (free surface), Lumen (space inside a tube), Basement membrane (anchors epithelium, Avascular (no blood vessels)
32
epithelial stratified
Stratified squamous – protection (skin, mouth).
Stratified cuboidal – ducts of glands.
Stratified columnar – rare; male urethra.
Transitional epithelium – stretches (bladder).
33
Define keratinized vs nonkeratinized.
Keratinized: tough, waterproof; outer skin.
Nonkeratinized: moist, protective; mouth, esophagus.
34
What is glandular epithelium? Endocrine vs exocrine glands?
Specialized for secretion.
Endocrine: secrete hormones into bloodstream.
Exocrine: secrete onto surfaces/ducts (sweat, mucus).
35
Define merocrine, apocrine, holocrine secretion.
Merocrine: release via exocytosis (salivary glands).
Apocrine: part of cell pinches off (mammary glands).
Holocrine: entire cell bursts (sebaceous glands).
36
How is spongy bone structured? What are trabeculae?
Spongy bone is organized into a network of trabeculae (thin plates).
Trabeculae provide strength with reduced weight.
36
inflammation
triggered by injury; increases blood flow; redness, heat, swelling, pain
36
reticular layer
dense irregular CT; strength and elasticity.
36
Nail terms: nail plate, nail bed, lunula.
Nail plate: visible nail.
Nail bed: skin beneath nail.
Lunula: pale half-moon at base.
36
papillary layer
areolar CT; forms dermal papillae (fingerprints).
37
merocrine sweat vs apocrine sweat
Merocrine sweat: watery, cooling; all over body.
Apocrine sweat: thicker, odorous; armpits/groin.
37
regeneration
clot → scab → fibroblasts → collagen → new tissue forms → remodeling.
38
What are the bone shapes?
Long bones – longer than wide; limbs (femur).
Short bones – cube-like; wrists/ankles.
Flat bones – thin, flat surfaces; skull, ribs.
Irregular bones – complex shapes; vertebrae.
Sesamoid bones – develop in tendons; patella
Sutural (wormian) bones – small bones within skull sutures.
38
What is bone remodeling/homeostasis?
Continuous process of bone resorption (osteoclasts) and deposition (osteoblasts) to maintain strength and mineral balance.
38
What is hydroxyapatite? What mineral is it mainly?
A calcium phosphate mineral that forms bone’s hard matrix.
Main mineral: calcium phosphate.
38
What are the basic functions of the skeletal system?
Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell production, fat storage.
38
What are osteopenia and osteoporosis?
Osteopenia: mild bone loss; reduced bone density.
Osteoporosis: severe bone loss causing fractures.
39
syndesmosis
fibrous joint; bones connected by ligaments (distal tibia-fibula).
39
What are the three structural classifications of joints?
Fibrous – bones joined by dense connective tissue.
Cartilaginous – bones joined by cartilage.
Synovial – fluid-filled joint cavity; freely movable.
40
suture
immovable fibrous joint between skull bones.
40
Describe the general structure of a synovial joint.
Articular cartilage (hyaline), Joint cavity filled with synovial fluid, Joint capsule (fibrous layer + synovial membrane), Ligaments, Possibly menisci, bursae, fat pads
40
symphysis
fibrocartilage joint (pubic symphysis, intervertebral discs)
40
gomphosis
peg-in-socket joint (teeth)
41
What are the functions of synovial fluid?
Lubrication, nutrient distribution, shock absorption.
41
synchondrosis
hyaline cartilage joint (epiphyseal plate, rib #1 to sternum).
41
synovial joint
fluid-filled cavity; freely movable (knee, shoulder).
42
What are menisci and bursae?
Menisci: fibrocartilage pads that improve fit and absorb shock (knee).
Bursae: fluid-filled sacs that reduce friction between tendons/ligaments and bone.
42
inversion vs eversion
Inversion: sole inward.
Eversion: sole outward.
43
Which ion is more concentrated outside and inside the neuron?
Outside: Na⁺ (sodium).
Inside: K⁺ (potassium).
43
Describe rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis
Rheumatoid arthritis: autoimmune inflammation of synovial membrane; painful swelling and deformity.
Osteoarthritis: wear-and-tear degeneration of articular cartilage.
44
What structure secretes CSF? What is the function and location of CSF?
Choroid plexus secretes CSF.
CSF is found in ventricles & subarachnoid space.
Functions: cushions brain/spinal cord, maintains stable environment, transports nutrients/waste.
44
What is threshold potential?
The membrane potential (~ –55 mV) that must be reached to trigger an action potential.
44
Describe location and function of four cerebral lobes.
Frontal: motor control, planning, personality, speech.
Parietal: sensory processing, touch, spatial awareness.
Temporal: hearing, memory, language understanding.
Occipital: vision.
45
Functions of association areas?
Interpret sensory info, memory, reasoning, problem-solving, personality, language integration.
46
What is the cerebral cortex? What tissue is it? Functions?
Thin outer layer of cerebrum.
Made of gray matter.
Functions: conscious thought, sensation, reasoning, voluntary movement.
47
Primary motor cortex
frontal lobe; voluntary muscle control.
47
What is hemisphere dominance? Left vs. right functions?
One hemisphere controls language/more complex tasks.
Left: language, math, logic
Right: creativity, spatial skills, emotion.
48
Where is the diencephalon? Components & functions?
Located between brainstem & cerebrum.
Thalamus: sensory relay station.
Hypothalamus: homeostasis—temperature, hunger, hormones, ANS control.
48
What is the limbic system? Components & functions?
Emotional brain; memory & motivation.
Includes hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, parts of frontal/temporal lobes.
49
Basal nuclei—location & function.
Deep within cerebral hemispheres; regulate movement, posture, muscle tone.
50
What is the spinal cord? How many spinal nerves?
CNS structure inside vertebral canal.
31 pairs of spinal nerves.
51
Two primary functions of spinal cord?
Conduct impulses to/from brain.
Center for spinal reflexes.
52
What is a reflex? What is a reflex arc? Steps?
Reflex: automatic response.
Reflex arc: pathway a reflex travels.
Steps:
1. Receptor
2. Sensory neuron
3. Interneuron
4. Motor neuron
5. Effector
53
What are ascending & descending tracts?
Ascending: carry sensory info to brain.
Descending: carry motor commands from brain.
54
Vagus (X)
parasympathetic control of heart, lungs, digestion; sensory from organs.
55
autonomic vs somatic
Somatic: voluntary control of skeletal muscles.
Autonomic: involuntary control of smooth/cardiac muscle & glands.
56
Two divisions of ANS? Functions?
Sympathetic: fight or flight, increased heart rate, dilated pupils.
Parasympathetic: rest and digest, slows heart, increases digestion.
57
Define sensation vs. perception.
Sensation: raw awareness of stimulus.
Perception: interpretation of sensation by the brain.
58
Describe the five categories of sensory receptors
Chemoreceptors: chemicals.
Pain receptors (nociceptors): tissue damage
Thermoreceptors: temperature.
Mechanoreceptors: pressure/movement.
Photoreceptors: light.
59
3 special mechanoreceptors.
Baroreceptors: pressure in organs.
Proprioceptors: body position.
Stretch receptors: organ stretch.
60
Functions of free nerve endings, tactile corpuscles, lamellated corpuscles.
Free nerve endings: temperature & pain.
Tactile corpuscles: light touch.
Lamellated corpuscles: deep pressure & vibration.
61
What are the five primary taste sensations?
Sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami.
62
lingual papillae
small projections on tongue surface (filiform, fungiform, circumvallate, foliate).
63
Gustatory receptors
taste receptor cells inside taste buds
64
gustatory pathway
taste receptors → cranial nerves VII (facial), IX (glossopharyngeal), X (vagus) → medulla → thalamus → gustatory cortex in insula.
65
External ear
auricle (pinna), external acoustic meatus, tympanic membrane.
66
Middle ear
auditory ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes), auditory (Eustachian) tube.
67
semicircular canals
detect rotational movement.
68
fluid of inner ear
Perilymph: fluid between bony & membranous labyrinth.
Endolymph: fluid inside membranous labyrinth.
69
What is the function and location of the spiral organ?
Function: contains hair cells that detect sound vibrations; converts them into nerve impulses.
Location: inside the cochlear duct on the basilar membrane.
70
Describe the events involved in hearing.
1. Sound waves vibrate tympanic membrane.
2. Ossicles amplify vibrations to oval window.
3. Vibrations create waves in perilymph of cochlea.
4. Basilar membrane moves, bending hair cells in spiral organ.
5. Hair cells generate nerve impulses → cochlear branch of CN VIII → brain.
71
How do hair cells in the semicircular ducts, utricle, and saccule respond to movement?
Semicircular ducts: detect rotational movement; endolymph movement bends hair cells.
Utricle & saccule: detect linear acceleration & gravity; movement of otoliths bends hair cells.
72
What role does the vestibulocochlear nerve play in equilibrium and hearing?
Cochlear branch: carries hearing information.
Vestibular branch: carries signals related to balance & head position.
73
Lacrimal apparatus
tear production & drainage.
74
Conjunctiva
membrane covering sclera & inner eyelids.
75
Optic disk
blind spot; where optic nerve exits eye.
76
What are photoreceptors, and where are they located? Difference between rods and cones?
Photoreceptors: cells that detect light; located in retina.
Rods: dim light, black & white vision, peripheral vision.
Cones: bright light, color vision, sharp detail.
77
what is the first step in DNA replication?
Helicase enzyme
helps to unwind and “unzip”
the DNA so that each DNA
strand can be used as a
template
78
what is the second step to DNA replication?
DNA polymerase
enzyme helps match new
nucleotide bases to each of
the DNA template strands.
79
what is the third step to DNA replication?
The sugar-phosphate
portions of the nucleotides
will be joined to create new
strands.
80
what happens in translation?
Translation occurs in cytoplasm with help of ribosomes, mRNA leaves nucleus via nuclear pores and goes to a, ribosome where the protein will be built, tRNA molecules help by bringing amino acids
81
first step of protein synthesis?
transcription, RNA polymerase catalyzes the formation of the pre-mRNA transcript from a DNA template
82
second step of protein synthesis?
RNA processing and transit, the introns are cut and the exons make up the mRNA, the mRNA leaves nucleus and enters cytosol
83
third step to protein synthesis?
translation, mRNA binds to the ribosome and is translated by tRNA, producing a polypeptide
84
fourth step to protein synthesis?
posttranslational modification, the polypeptide is modified and folded into its final protein form, most of which occurs in the cytosol or the rough ER
85
what are osteogenic cells?
stem cells that produce cells which differentiate into osteoblasts important in fracture repair
86
what are osteons?
organized concentric lamellae around a central canal, osteocytes lie between lamellae,
87
what are canaliculi?
connect lacunae with each other and central canal
88
what does lamellae do?
it forms struts and plates called trabeculae creating an open network
89
when does intramembranous ossification begin?
begins at 8th week of embryonic development to form flat bones
90
first step of intramembranous ossification?
Osteoblasts develop in the primary ossification center from mesenchymal cells
91
second step of intramembranous ossification?
Osteoblasts secrete organic matrix, which calcifies, and trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes
92
third step of intramembranous ossification?
Osteoblasts lay down trabeculae of early spongy bone, and some of the surrounding mesenchyme differentiates into the periosteum
93
fourth step of intramembranous ossification?
Osteoblasts in the periosteum lay down early compact bone
94
what type of cartilage does endochondral ossification begin with?
hyaline
95
first step of endochondral ossification?
The chondroblasts in the perichondrium differentiate into osteoblasts
96
second step of endochondral ossification?
The bone begins to ossify from the outside, by Osteoblasts build the bone collar on the bone’s external surface and at the same time the internal cartilage begins to calcify and the chondrocytes die
97
third step of endochondral ossification?
In the primary ossification center, osteoblasts replace the calcified cartilage with early spongy bone; the secondary ossification centers and medullary cavity develop
98
fourth step of endochondral ossification?
primary ossification center in the diaphysis region forms as osteoblasts replace calcified cartilage with spongy bone and a medullary cavity develops, the seconary ossification center forms in the epiphyses
99
what is appositional growth?
process that enlarges bones that are already in position
100
first step of appositional growth?
osteogenic cells differentiate into osteoblasts that add bone matrix under the periosteum
101
second step of appositional growth?
adds successive layers of circumferential lamellae, in fibers of tendons, ligaments, and joint capsules
102
third step of appositional growth?
trapped osteoblasts become osteocytes
103
fourth step of appositional growth?
deeper lamellae are recycled and replaced by newly formed osteons
104
fifth step of appositional growth?
osteoclasts remove matrix at inner surface to enlarge the medullary cavity
105
sixth step of appositional growth?
the inner surface can also grow and be repaired by the osteoblasts and osteogenic cells in the endosteum layer
106
what are fibrous joints?
held together with dense connective tissue containing many collagen fibers, found in bones in close contact
107
what are the three types of fibrous joints?
syndesmosis, suture, gomphosis
108
what are the two types of cartilaginous joints?
synchondrosis and symphysis
109
articular surface?
resembles hyaline cartilage, reduces friction, separated by thin film of synovial fluid
110
joint capsule fibrous layer?
dense connective tissue, reinforced by tendons and ligaments, continuous with periosteum
111
meniscus?
pad of fibrous cartilage between bones, subdivides joint cavity, directs fluid flow, allows variations in shapes of articular surfaces
112
layers of thin skin in order?
stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, stratum basale
113
what are polysaccharides?
many joined monomers, starches and glycogen
114
what are monosaccharides?
glucose and fructose
115
what are disaccharides?
two joined monomers, sucrose, maltose, and lactose
116
what is the cell theory?
1. all living things are made of one or more cells
2. all cells come from the division/splitting of preexisting cells
3. cells are the smallest units that can perform the characteristic functions of life to maintain homeostasis
117
what are peripheral proteins?
bound to either the inner or outer surface
118
linking proteins
link cells together in a tissue and can allow communication between cells
119
structural proteins
bind proteins inside and outside of cell for stability of the cell
120
what is the cell membrane permeable to? (will let through diffusion)
Oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other lipid soluble substances
121
microfilaments
composed of actin protein, part of microvilli
122
intermediate filaments
strongest and most durable cytoskeletal element and helps move molecules through cytosol
123
microtubules
extend outward from centrosome, provide strength, move organelles, and moves chromosomes through cytosol during mitosis
Anatomy
flashcards
Decks in class (35)
# Cards
-
integument44
-
cell division and organelles26
-
bone59
-
Joints43
-
muscles of head and neck and myology47
-
sarcomere and muscles of trunk16
-
muscles of pectoral gridle and arm22
-
muscles of pelvis and thigh19
-
muscles of the forearm, hand, leg, foot50
-
Joints and pelvis17
-
nervous system67
-
eye24
-
Brain structures41
-
Myelination49
-
Ear20
-
circulatory system48
-
lymphatic system24
-
respiratory system53
-
endocrine system27
-
digestive system59
-
urinary system44
-
reproductive system32
-
meiosis33
-
chap 1/lab 163
-
chap 2/lab 242
-
organelles17
-
lab exam 242
-
exam 296
-
lab exam 359
-
Exam 3107
-
exam 4122
-
Lab Exam 634
-
exam 4 chat gpt94
-
final exam170
-
final exam1
