Forest resources

Question 1

What source of resource are trees?

Answer 1

Trees are a renewable resource but their slow growth rate and the need for land for other purposes has caused a significant reduction in global forest area.

Question 2

Resources?

Answer 2

• timber
• fuel
• food
• fibres
• medicines

Question 3

Resources- timber?

Answer 3

wood is strong, has a high strength: weight ratio, flexibility, requires little processing for use and is often readily available.
- mahogany and teak from tropical forest
- oak and beech from temperature deciduous forests
- conifer timber form norther coniferous forests
The wood from different tree species has different properties and therefore different uses. Wood is a globally important resource with a wide range of uses:
- structural uses: building construction, telegraph poles, shuttering for concrete structures
- furniture
- tools

Question 4

how much of the lands surface area is covered by forests?

Answer 4

30%

Question 5

Resources- fibres?

Answer 5

• most paper is made from flattened sheets if interwoven cellulose fibres from pulped wood
• cotton is made from the fibres that surround the seeds of the cotton bush
• viscose (rayon) textiles are made by the chemical treatment of cellulose fibres extracted from wood

Question 6

Resources- fuel?

Answer 6

wood is still the fuel that is used by most people in the world for cooking
- fuelwood
before the industrial revolution, wood was the main energy resource for almost everyone in the world. Although oil, coal and gas now provide more energy than wood. Wood still provides energy for the greatest number of people, mainly in LEDCs.

Question 7

Resources- Food?

Answer 7

trees provide fodder for livestock and fruit and nuts for human food. The animals that live in forests can provide human food such as bushmeat in LEDCs
Many forests plant species are important in agriculture such as coffee, cacao (chocolate), bananas, papayas, and Brazil nuts. Pigs and chickens were originally forest animals.
The wild varieties of cultivated species contain genes for new characteristics that may be important in future selective breeding programmes.
There may be many more species in forests that could be cultivated or domesticated.

Question 8

Resources- Medicines?

Answer 8

Trees produce many chemicals that have medicinal uses. Some are still extracted from tree tissues while others were identified in trees but are now synthesised artificially, for example, quinine that was originally extracted from the Cinchona tree. Most forest species have not yet been researched for the medicinal compounds that they may contain.

Question 9

Ecosystem services:
What benefit do trees provide/ their ecological services?
(7 things)

Answer 9

-atmospheric regulation
-regulation of the hydrological cycle
-carbon sequestration
-forest microclimate - less light lower down = plants adapt, lower wind velocity less wind damage, more humid = amphibians can survive
-habitat and wildlife refuge
-soil conservation = increased aeration of soil due to roots
-recreational use/ aesthetic

Question 10

Ecosystem services:
Atmospheric regulation?

Answer 10

-The balance of photosynthesis and respiration in forests is important in regulating atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide and oxygen.
-Forests act as a huge reservoir of carbon, mainly in the carbohydrate cellulose which is the main component of wood
- if carbon were nor stored in wood, most of it would be in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide
- cellulose is difficult to digest so wood is a carbon reservoir with a relatively long residence time compared with carbon in other living material
-Carbon sequestration is the process during which growing trees take more carbon out of the atmosphere during photosynthesis and store it in more wood. This can be used deliberately to counteract climate change by planting more trees
- these processes remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and also release the oxygen that is essential for all aerobic organisms, and for the maintenance of the ozone layer
- the total mass of carbon in forest soils is greater that that in the vegetation, especially in boreal forests
-the total mass of carbon in forests is roughly double the mass in the atmosphere
-Carbon dioxide absorption by photosynthesis and the storage of carbon in wood increases the amount of carbon in the biomass reservoir of the carbon cycle. This helps to minimise global climate change

Question 11

Ecosystem services:
Regulation of the hydrological cycle?

Answer 11

-Transpiration rates from forests are greater than from any other terrestrial ecosystems and is important in increasing precipitation rates downwind
-interception by the foliage of forests also increases evaporation rates but decreases infiltration
-forests help soil formation and reduce soil erosion so soil depth mat be greater than for other ecosystems. The soil will retain water after it has rained and moderate the flow of water into rivers.
-the low albedo of forests increases the absorption of sunlight and the storage of heat in the water in the wood
-forests absorb sunlight during the day. Much of this is converted to heat which is radiated at night. This reduces the extremes of temperature between day and night

Question 12

Ecosystem services:
Forest microclimate/ climate regulation- what are the 3 factors?

Answer 12

The trees change the abiotic conditions beneath the canopy layer creating a wider range of conditions that different species may be adapted to.
-light
-wind velocity
-humidity

Question 13

Ecosystem services:
Forest microclimate/ climate regulation- light?

Answer 13

The canopy vegetation absorbs a lot of the solar insolation, especially the red and blue wavelengths that are absorbed by chlorophyll. Plants living below the canopy have access to less light and much of this is green light that is not effectively absorbed by chlorophyll. So, these plants often have special adaptations such as denser chlorophyll, additional pigments or growth periods when the trees have lost their leaves.

Question 14

Ecosystem services:
Forest microclimate/ climate regulation-
Wind velocity?

Answer 14

The lower wind velocity produced by the shelter of the trees means that plants below the canopy layers use animals to help with pollination and seed dispersal rather than the wind.

Question 15

Ecosystem services:
Forest microclimate/ climate regulation- Humidity?

Answer 15

High humidity levels mean that animals such as amphibians can survive more easily as their skin does not dry out.

Question 16

Ecosystem services:
Habitat and wildlife refuge?

Answer 16

• forests are the most biodiverse terrestrial ecosystems. Each species of tree supports its own unique community of species so forests with a greater variety of tree species are likely to have a greater overall biodiversity. Forests create very diverse habitats with a large variety of possible ecological niches. This is increased by stratification within the forest, which is most obvious in forests with the highest primary productivity. The trees also create variations in abiotic factors such as light levels, light wavelength, humidity, temperature and wind velocity.
• the high primary productivity of forests provides a lot of energy to support higher trophic levels in the food chain. The energy is not always available to other organisms quickly, as much is stored in the wood which will be released when the tree dies and decomposes.

Question 17

Ecosystem services:
Soil conservation - forests aid soil formation and reduce soil erosion what are the 6 methods?

Answer 17

• dead vegetation contributes humus and nutrients to the soil, and the food energy for detritivores and decomposers that are involved in soil formation
• the trees help to prevent soil being washed or blown away by intercepting rainfall and reducing wind velocity
• the living trees and leaf litter on the soil surface help to reduce wind velocity and the impact of rain drops
• tree roots help to hold the soil together which reduces erosion by water running over the surface
• humus from decomposed vegetation also binds the soil together
• a forest soil with lots of organic matter will have lots of living organisms including worms. This increases the ease with which water infiltrates into the soil which reduces runoff and therefore the amount of soil that is washed away

Question 18

Ecosystem services:
Recreation/ amenity uses?

Answer 18

Forests are important for recreational uses such as walking, orienteering, cycling and camping. Forests are also important for educational activities.

Question 19

Forest exploitation and management:
What is meant by traditional forest management?

Answer 19

-In pre-industrial societies, Forests produced wood from a wide range of different species, each having its own particular uses.
Traditional techniques involved the management of existing woodland areas to maximise yields of forest products. This rarely involved the total removal of the natural forest and often retained mixed-species forests with trees of different ages
- involves native tree species.

Question 20

what is meant by forestry, what has happened to forests over time because of it?

Answer 20

Trees are a renewable resource
But their slow growth rate and the need for land for other purposes has caused a significant reduction in global forest area

Question 21

Forest exploitation and management:
Traditional forest management - uses of different tree species?

Answer 21

The wood from different species has different properties and therefore different uses.
- oak: timber-framed buildings, ship building
- Beech: furniture, tool handles
- Ash: furniture, roof timbers
- Holly: mathematical instruments, walking sticks
- Hazel: fencing panels, interwoven wall panels

Question 22

Forest exploitation and management:
state the 3 traditional management methods.

Answer 22

• standard trees
• coppicing
• pollarding

Question 23

Forest exploitation and management:
traditional management methods - what is standard trees management?

Answer 23

These are trees that were grown to maturity for the production if large timbers for uses such as the construction of buildings and ships.

Question 24

Forest exploitation and management:
traditional management methods - Coppicing?

Answer 24

“The process of regularly cutting down tree branches close to ground level. The regrowth produces thin straight branches. It was traditionally done on a cycle of six to ten years for making fence panels and wall panels. Short-rotation willow coppice is now used as a biofuel.”

This involves cutting trees to ground level on a cycle of 1 to 20 years depending on the use of the wood. the branches that regrow were used for baskets, fencing, charcoal, wall panels, and roof rafters

cut tree down to ground level then cut grooves at base (type of propagation) stimulates tree trunk to split into more than one trunk

Question 25

Forest exploitation and management: traditional management methods - What are the benefits of coppicing?

Answer 25

- increases yields per square foot - increases efficiency - more manageable - = more fit for use - coppiced woodlands allows more light intensity = more food sources for animals

Question 26

Forest exploitation and management: traditional management methods - Pollarding?

Answer 26

"The process of regularly cutting down tree branches above ground level, usually to prevent the regrowth being eaten by animals such as livestock or deer. It is usually done on a cycle of 5 to 30 years." This is similar to coppicing, but the trees are cut above ground level so the regrowing branches cannot be eaten by livestock. There is little current demand for coppiced or pollarded timber.

Question 27

Forest exploitation and management: Modern commercial forestry?

Answer 27

As a society develops to become industrial, the demand for timber changes, as does the way it is used. Demand for wood fuel may decline as people switch to fossil fuels or electricity. The species-specific uses of wood from traditionally managed woodland are often replaced by large-scale uses such as chipped wood for sheet construction material and plywood for concrete shuttering. Harvesting methods changed from selective logging or cutting of small areas to large-scale clear-felling. This reduces the wildlife biodiversity of the forest. The existing natural woodland may be replaced with plantations of selected species. - plantations which have lower species and habitat diversity - the plantations usually contain non-native species as the suffer less from pests and disease e.g. Douglas fir in the UK as they do not recognise the tree as a source of resources, trees may grow faster - However, they are monocultures, planted close together to encourage growth of tall straight trees or they compete for light (increases density dependent factors) - Unfortunately, these trees have lower light intensity and compete for soil minerals and water. As a result, the woodland floor has less species diversity - The trees also have the same age structure at the same time meaning there isn't a variety of abiotic factors - reducing diversity of wildlife species

Question 28

Forest exploitation and management: traditional management methods - benefits of pollarding?

Answer 28

- increase yields of food - = more fit for use ( basket weaving, fences,) - stops animals from eating new branches

Question 29

Forest exploitation and management: why do we use modern commercial forestry of non-native species?

Answer 29

- increased disease resistance (local diseases and pests do not recognise them) - increased market value - more aesthetic/ visually pleasing - increased yield of wood - increased food production - faster growth

Question 30

Forest exploitation and management: Problems with modern commercial forestry of non-native species?

Answer 30

- completely removes habitat provisions - removes abiotic features - Non-native trees may not be able to grow locally due to abiotic conditions - no range of tolerance - can contain bugs/ diseases etc. = introduced invasive species (e.g. Dutch elm beetle) -simplifies age structure -fewer abiotic factors present for indigenous species - close planting leads to trees depleting the nutrients in the soil - close planting more vulnerable to density dependent factors like disease - it is usually fine as disease usually doesn't recognise them but if one time it does it is likely every single tree will very quickly become infected

Question 31

The relationship between forest productivity and biodiversity: The impact on productivity and biodiversity of growth of non-indigenous species?

Answer 31

The tree species selected for cultivation are often non-indigenous. they may be better adapted to the environmental conditions and are less likely to suffer damage caused by pests or disease. As pests and disease do not recognise them. Growing non-indigenous species is less likely to support indigenous wildlife species because their inter-species needs for food, pollination, seed dispersal or habitats are less likely to be met.

Question 32

The relationship between forest productivity and biodiversity: The impact on productivity and biodiversity of growth of growth of non-indigenous species- examples of non-indigenous forestry plantations?

Answer 32

- UK: Sitka spruce and Douglas fir (originally from North America) Corsican pine (originally from Southern Europe) - Central America: Teak (originally from Asia - East Africa: Eucalyptus (originally from Australia)

Question 33

The relationship between forest productivity and biodiversity: The impact on productivity and biodiversity of growth of single-species plantations?

Answer 33

Growing a monoculture of one tree species can make management of a plantation easier. Activities such as planting, thinning, and felling can be carried out over large areas at the same time - however this significantly reduces biodiversity as fewer habitat provisions, no variety in abiotic conditions, less availability of food

Question 34

The relationship between forest productivity and biodiversity: The impact on productivity and biodiversity of growth of close planting?

Answer 34

Planting all the seedlings close together makes the trees compete with each other for light s they grow tall and straight. The low light levels at ground level inhibit the growth of other plants that may compete with the trees for water or nutrients. The loss of these plants and the species that depend upon them reduces the wildlife diversity of the forest.

Question 35

The relationship between forest productivity and biodiversity: The impact on productivity and biodiversity of growth of simple age structure?

Answer 35

Planting large areas of trees at the same time makes tree management easy. the trees will all be of similar sizes and will all need similar management activities at the same time. However, having trees of a similar size reduces the variety of abiotic factors compared with having a plantation with trees of different ages and sizes. This reduces the diversity of wildlife species that can survive. The trees in commercial plantations are usually felled when the income will be the greatest. This is normally when they are approaching full size and the growth rate is starting to decline. This is very different from a natural forest which contain old trees with dead wood that supports many invertebrates and the species that feed on them such as woodpeckers.

Question 36

Deforestation: The causes of deforestation?

Answer 36

- over 1/3 of the worlds original forest area has been lost due to human activities . "exploitation above the maximum sustainable yield" (unsustainable exploitation) . "clearance for alternative land use" deliberate removal of forests to make space for another land use eg agriculture, urban development ("" = spec)

Question 37

Deforestation: State the effect of deforestation on resources, biodiversity, hydrology, soil and climate.

Answer 37

Loss of resources: - timber, fuel, fibres, medicines - reduced biodiversity - loss of species - fragmentation of remaining forest areas

Question 38

Deforestation: Changes to hydrology?

Answer 38

- reduced interception and transpiration - increased runoff (due to less infiltration)

Question 39

Deforestation: Impact on soil?

Answer 39

- less dead organic matter (less leaf litter) - increased soil erosion - less protection of soil by vegetation and leaf litter - reduced root binding - reduced soil formation - reduced soil organic matter

Question 40

Deforestation: Climate impacts?

Answer 40

- increased albedo - reduced carbon sequestration and carbon reservoir - reduced rainfall downwind

Question 41

Sustainable forest management- what are the 4 methods?

Answer 41

- mixed species plantations - indigenous species - mixed age structure - selective logging (off spec harvesting rates - the rate of resource removal must be no greater than the maximum sustainable yield) . some countries have had large-scale tree planting projects, such as China, Cuba and Bhutan

Question 42

Sustainable forest management- How are mixed species plantations more sustainable?

Answer 42

wildlife biodiversity is increased by growing multiple species because there is an increase in food choices, inter-species relationships and niches

Question 43

Sustainable forest management- how does growth of indigenous species increase sustainability?

Answer 43

If indigenous species are cultivated it is more likely that other indigenous species will benefit eg birds and insects

Question 44

Sustainable forest management- how does a mixed age structure increase sustainability?

Answer 44

Having a plantation with trees of different ages produces a greater diversity of abiotic factors such as light levels, temperature and wind velocity. This increases the biodiversity of other species living in the forest.

Question 45

Sustainable forest management- how does selective logging increase sustainability?

Answer 45

Clear-felling a large area at one time is easy. It can be commercially advantageous if the trees have been grown as a single species monoculture as all the trees may be ready for harvesting at the same time. In mixed-species plantations or natural forests, different trees will be ready for felling at different times. selective logging is more expensive because it is more labour-intensive but it gains the maximum benefit from the forest timber resource over a longer time periods. it is also good for wildlife as the removal of individual trees leaves smaller clearings which have a smaller impact on the survival of remaining wildlife populations. wildlife that has lost its tree habitat will not have to move too far to find a new habitat

Question 46

Causes of forest loss: what are the 5 main causes for forest loss?

Answer 46

- Agriculture - Mineral extraction - reservoirs - urbanisation - transport infrastructure

Question 47

Causes of forest loss: How does agriculture cause forest loss? what are the two examples?

Answer 47

Agricultural expansion causes the loss of forests in two main ways: - the growth of the local population increases the demand for food, so more land must be cleared for farming - forest clearance or commercial cash crop agriculture where the produce may be taken to cities or exported For example: - Rainforest clearance in South America to grow sugar cane and soya beans or to ranch cattle - Rainforest clearance in SE Asia to grow palm oil

Question 48

Causes of forest loss: How does mineral extraction cause forest loss?

Answer 48

Forest clearance for mining and the associated infrastructure affects a relatively small total area but it can have important local impacts

Question 49

Causes of forest loss: How do reservoirs cause forest loss?

Answer 49

Reservoirs for public supply, irrigation or hydroelectric power (HEP) can replace forests. The expansion of HEP in South America has caused the loss of large areas of tropical rainforest.

Question 50

Causes of forest loss: How has urbanisation caused forest loss?

Answer 50

The expansion of urban areas can cause direct loss of forest. It also increases the demand for fuel and food which can cause further forest loss

Question 51

Causes of forest loss: How does transport infrastructure cause forest loss?

Answer 51

The area of forest loss by the construction of roads, railways or airports is not large, but they can have other impacts: - roads and railways can create barriers to the movement of wildlife and cause population fragmentation - improved transport systems increase accessibility and make it easier to take out resources such as felled trees or agricultural produce that may increase the rate of forest clearance

Question 52

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - key facts?

Answer 52

-The RBCMA is a relatively unmanaged rainforest, although species such as Mahogany were selectively logged by the British up to the middle of the 20 th century. -The RBCMA is now managed by the Belizean NGO 'programme for Belize' -The biodiversity of the RBCMA is high, with over 200 species of tree, 400 species of bird and 70 species of mammal. -Management is carried out to conserve wildlife, produce resources, sequester carbon and benefit the local and national economy. -The establishment of the rainforest reserve is good for wildlife but could threaten the local communities that used to use the area for fuelwood supplies, timber for housebuilding, farming clearings, hunting for food and the collection of medicines and fibres. -A range of economic activities have been developed or encouraged. . Local people are employed in forestry and ecotourism activities within the reserve. . Ecotourist groups visit local restaurants, are fed with local produce and buy locally made souvenirs.

Question 53

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - What is current forest exploitation done for?

Answer 53

Current exploitation of forest resources aims to raise money to help pay for the management of the reserve without causing long-term damage. More ecologically sensitive areas are not exploited, such as wetlands and areas close to rivers.

Question 54

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Tree selection?

Answer 54

-The focus is on the most economically valuable species, such as mahogany. Trees for felling are only selected in areas where there are other trees of the same species upwind of the clearing that will be created. Seeds from these trees will then recolonise the clearing. -Each tree that is felled is given a unique identification tag which allows the timber to be tracked from its original location to its final retail destination such as a DIY superstore in the UK. This is used to gain accreditation of sustainable exploitation from the FSC (Forest Stewardship Council). -The exploitation of other species is being developed such as zericote which is used for furniture, musical instruments and ornament carvings.

Question 55

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Buffer zones near rivers?

Answer 55

No mechanical or harvesting activities occur near rivers because of the ecological sensitivity of aquatic ecosystems.

Question 56

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Small trees?

Answer 56

Small trees are not felled so that they can grow and be harvested in the future when they are larger.

Question 57

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Large trees?

Answer 57

Selected large trees may be left because they will produce many seeds that will help to fill the spaces left by trees that are felled.

Question 58

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Restricted use of machinery?

Answer 58

Large machines can damage the trunks and roots of trees that are not going to be felled. Restricting the use of machinery reduces this damage.

Question 59

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Track routes?

Answer 59

The tracks for vehicles are planned to avoid important trees and their roots. These can include trees that are comparatively rare and trees that provide food for monkeys or birds. Previously used tracks are reused whenever possible.

Question 60

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Smaller branches?

Answer 60

Smaller branches and offcuts that have low commercial value are given to local artisans such as wood carvers or furniture makers.

Question 61

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Tree nurseries?

Answer 61

Tree seedlings are raised to increase the number of trees that were over-exploited in the past or are ecologically important, such as fruit trees that provide food for monkeys. Tree seedlings are also given to local communities.

Question 62

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Control of illegal logging?

Answer 62

Rangers patrol the reserve to control illegal logging. Illegally logged timber that is confiscated is sold to pay for conservation activities.

Question 63

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Community projects?

Answer 63

Wildlife conservation projects are unlikely to be successful if there are no benefits for the local community. Programme for Belize has developed a variety of ecotourism projects so that the local communities benefit from wildlife conservation. PfB is also a major employer of rangers, forestry workers and tourism employees.

Question 64

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Carbon sequestration?

Answer 64

An area of the forest is part of a research programme to monitor the sequestration of carbon as part of an assessment of the role of rainforests in reducing global climate change.

Question 65

Case study: The Rio Bravo Conservation and management Area (RBCMA), Belize, Central America - Where has the funding for this project come from?

Answer 65

Funding for the project has come from electricity companies, airline and individuals, all of whom wish to minimise atmospheric CO2 levels.

Question 66

define deforestation.

Answer 66

"The action of removing trees, resulting in a reduction in forest area."