1
Q
what are feedback mechanisms?
A
A process where an action has consequences which affect the original process.
2
Q
what is a positive feedback loop?
A
Positive feedback mechanisms increase the rate of the original action
3
Q
what is a negative feedback loop?
A
negative feedback mechanisms reduce the rate of the original action
4
Q
Negative feedback mechanisms which resist change:
Natural processes- Climate regulation - what are the two negative feedback mechanisms?
A
- increased temperatures causing increased cloud cover and a higher albedo (reflecting harmful UV and decreasing temperature)
- increased carbon dioxide levels leading to greater photosynthesis and carbon sequestration (reducing the greenhouse affect reducing temperature)
5
Q
Negative feedback mechanisms which resist change:
Natural processes- Hydrological cycle?
A
-increased evaporation leading to increased precipitation
6
Q
Negative feedback mechanisms which resist change:
Natural processes- population regulation?
A
-homeostatic population regulation caused by density- dependent factors. (e.g. disease)
7
Q
what are the seven positive feedback loops caused by climate change?
A
Increased temperatures may increase the following features involved in positive feedback mechanisms:
-melting of permafrost
-ocean acidification
-decline of albedo
-methane hydrate releases
-forest and peat fires
-formation of cirrus clouds
-soil decomposition rates
8
Q
Positive feedback loops:
What is the sequence for melting of permafrost?
A
land areas in Arctic and antarctic regions may have soil that is waterlogged but permanently frozen. This frozen soil includes dead organic matter that decomposed slowly under anaerobic conditions, releasing methane gas which was trapped by the permafrost. Warming can cause the frozen soil to defrost, releasing the methane gas, which is a powerful greenhouse gas and causes further warming.
9
Q
Positive feedback loops:
What is the sequence for ocean acidification?
A
10
Q
Positive feedback loops:
What is the sequence for decline of albedo?
A
11
Q
Positive feedback loops:
What is the sequence for methane hydrate releases?
A
12
Q
Positive feedback loops:
What is the sequence for forest and peat fires?
A
13
Q
Positive feedback loops:
What is the sequence for formation of cirrus clouds?
A
increased temperature = increased evaporation. Increased evaporation increases the amount of water vapour. Water vapour is a powerful greenhouse gas. More water vapour leads to an increase in the greenhouse effect where more infrared radiation is trapped thus leading to a further increase in temperature.
14
Q
Positive feedback loops:
What is the sequence for soil decomposition rates?
A
Increased temperature leads to an increase in the number of soil biota as they are more in their range of tolerance (leads to an increase in teh activation energy for the reactions involved in decomposition). Decomposition releases methane and carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. This increases the greenhous effect and thus the temperature.
15
Q
What is Global Climate Change
A
These are natural processes that become self-sustaining due to human activities eg forest fires, methane hydrate releases, permafrost melting.
16
Q
What are some examples of high diversity ecosystems?
A
High diversity natural systems:
-coral reefs,
-tropical rainforests.
17
Q
whats an example of a low diversity human system?
A
-agroecosystems.
18
Q
why are high diversity ecosystems good?
A
because they are more likely to be resistant to change
19
Q
How do human activities differ from natural processes?
A
Human activities often produce less diverse systems. Many agroecosystems focus on the production of a limited range of food species with little attempt to maintain other species that help maintain ecological stability and productivity e.g. detritivores, pollinators, natural pest predators.
20
Q
what have natural processes concerning feedback mechanisms done?
A
Throughout the time that humans evolved, climatic conditions on Earth have been dominated by negative feedback mechanisms, producing relatively stable conditions.
21
Q
what is a tipping point?
A
A tipping point is reached when the changes caused by human activities cause further changes such that the human activities are no longer needed to maintain the changes.
22
Q
what are the natural processes concerning equilibrium tipping points which lead to new equilibria?
A
Natural systems that are regulated by negative feedback mechanisms rarely reach tipping points because the response to changes re-establishes the previous state of equilibria.
Large scale unusual events can cause changes that reach tipping points as they overwhelm the ability of negative feedback mechanisms to re-create the equilibrium e.g. the possible release of methane hydrate at the end of the Permian era that caused climate change and a mass extinction.
23
Q
what are the human activities concerning equilibrium tipping points which lead to new equilibria?
A
Global climate change:
- an increase in the rate of natural processes may become self-sustaining due to human activities, for example, forest fires, methane hydrate releases and permafrost melting.
24
Q
Energy:
what are natural processes driven by?
A
natural systems are driven by low energy-density, renewable energy resources, especially solar power.
25
Energy:
what does using renewables versus non-renewables mean for sustainability?
The use of renewable energy resources in natural processes provides long-term sustainability in contrast to anthropogenic processes reliant on non-renewable energy resources.
26
Energy:
What natural processes are driven by renewable energy, especially solar?
-Hydrological cycle.
-Carbon cycle.
-Nitrogen cycle.
-Atmospheric circulation.
-Thermohaline circulation.
27
Energy:
What are human activities concerning renewables/ non-renewables?
- human activities are usually powered by non-renewable energy resources.
-human activities based on renewable energy resources have low carbon footprints.
- most natural processes occur at low temperatures
28
Energy:
what are natural low temperature processes?
(4 things)
- production of carbohydrates by photosynthesis
- enzymes reduce the activation energy of reactions so high temperatures are nor needed
- decomposition
- biological nitrogen fixation
29
Energy:
What are the human activities that use high temperatures?
(3 things)
- many manufacturing processes
- Haber process (uses fossil fuels) (artificial nitrogen fixation)
- incineration of wastes
30
How are All the natural processes driven by solar energy are driven by low energy-density resources. How does this differ to human activities?
Natural processes that rely on low 'energy-density solar energy' capture the energy at a low energy density. It may be used in natural processes at a low energy density or may be converted into other energy forms with a higher energy-density which may be applied more easily to human activities.
31
What is a carbon footprint?
An estimate of the total releases of greenhouse gases caused by the actions of an individual, group of people, an organisation or activity. The amounts of all greenhouse gases are expressed as the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide.
32
how can carbon footprints be made more sustainable?
carbon footprints introduced under the physical environment should be re-considered in evaluating the contribution of mimicking natural energy systems to achieve sustainability.
33
Material cycles:
what do linear human systems lead to?
They lead to resource depletion and waste generation
34
Material cycles:
What does the use of fossil fuels lead to?
The reliance on non-renewable energy resources cannot be sustainable. Inefficient use and use when renewable resources are available accelerates depletion rates.
35
Material cycles:
How does human produced wastes of Mineral resources differ from natural waste?
Human use of minerals often involves dispersal after use or produces mixtures from which separation is difficult. These make recovery and re-use difficult so sustainable exploitation is reduced.
natural waste products are either non-toxic or do not build up to cause toxicity.
36
Material cycles:
What do natural processes do?
Natural processes often link together in sequences that create cycles, with the waste products of one process being the raw materials for the other process.
37
Material cycles:
what are the natural processes?
The molecules produced by natural processes are biodegradable and can be broken down to non-toxic products that are the raw materials for other natural processes. Natural processes use a relatively small number of elements, which build into monomers.
These build to produce a wide range of polymers eg carbohydrates, proteins.
We should consider how the low toxicity of the wastes of natural processes that process them minimise the environmental problems and provide sustainable supplies.
( consider how the use and re-use of abundant, simple raw materials in natural cycles results in sustainability and how this principle may be applied to human systems.).
38
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
cycling of materials?
- biogeochemical cycles and recycling
- biogeochemical cycles involve interconnected physical and biological processes where each process uses the waste products of a previous process and produces wastes that are the raw materials for subsequent processes. There is no depletion of raw materials or a build-up of wastes.
39
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Energy derived from renewable resources?
-Solar and non-solar renewable energy in natural and human systems.
- Almost all natural processes are driven by renewable energy resources, especially solar energy
40
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Human activities should support ecosystems - how can we do this?
-The inclusion of ecosystem conservation in human planning eg agriculture, forestry, fisheries, energy use, waste management.
-since human survival relies on the services provided by natural ecosystems, it is important that human activities do not damage them.
41
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Separation of technical and biological materials?
-Separation of biodegradable wastes from other materials eg metals to enable reuse.
- materials such as metals and plastic require different reprocessing methods.
42
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
How diverse systems are more resistant to change?
-Diverse ecosystems and diverse technical systems eg the use of a range of renewable energy resources.
-Each component in a diverse ecosystem is likely to be relatively less important, so the impact of a change is likely to be smaller.
43
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Connected systems where the waste product of one process is the raw material for another process?
-Natural biogeochemical cycles compared with pollution caused by human wastes.
- Natural systems are usually connected systems where the waste product of one process is the raw material for another process
44
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Design of products for end of life reuse?
-Design to enable re-use of components or materials eg vehicles, domestic equipment.
- reusing or recycling materials is often easier if the items are designed so that the materials can be identified, separated and re-used or recycled more easily.
45
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Optimum production rather than maximum production?
-Consideration of natural system where over-production supports processes upon which the system relies eg plant products which support pollinators, seed dispersal agents and microbes such as decomposers and mycorrhizal fungi. This can be contrasted with agroecosystems which aim for maximum harvested yields.
- Natural systems often over-produce so that the surplus supports processes upon which the whole system relies,
46
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Technologies to design new products and improve system effectiveness?
- improved designs can increase the efficiency of energy use, reduce material use and enable dismantling for re-use
47
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Students must evaluate the extent to which the principles of the circular economy can be applied to human activities to develop sustainable lifestyles in the following activities:
Land uses that support natural ecosystems?
-The inclusion of living organisms into urban landscapes to conserve wildlife and improve quality of life.
48
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Students must evaluate the extent to which the principles of the circular economy can be applied to human activities to develop sustainable lifestyles in the following activities: water supplies?
-Water conservation and catchment management.
- good management of water catchments, aquifers and water conservation reduce the impacts of water use on wildlife
49
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Students must evaluate the extent to which the principles of the circular economy can be applied to human activities to develop sustainable lifestyles in the following activities: Mineral supplies?
-Increasing reserves by exploiting low-grade ores.
50
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Students must evaluate the extent to which the principles of the circular economy can be applied to human activities to develop sustainable lifestyles in the following activities: Waste management?
Reduced use, reuse, repurposing, recycling.
51
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Students must evaluate the extent to which the principles of the circular economy can be applied to human activities to develop sustainable lifestyles in the following activities: pollution control?
A move from post-production treatment to non-release by changes in technology eg from internal combustion engines to fuel cells.
52
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Students must evaluate the extent to which the principles of the circular economy can be applied to human activities to develop sustainable lifestyles in the following activities: Energy supplies?
The use of renewable energy resources and the development of low-temperature manufacturing processes.
53
The application of the principles of the circular economy to the development of sustainable lifestyles:
Students must evaluate the extent to which the principles of the circular economy can be applied to human activities to develop sustainable lifestyles in the following activities: Food production?
The inclusion of natural processes in nutrient supply, pest control and soil maintenance.
54
Land uses that support natural ecosystems:
the ways the conservation of biodiversity can be incorporated into the planning of many human activities - urban development?
-urban development= The designs and management of gardens, parks, public green spaces and buildings can provide opportunities for wildlife to colonise.
55
Land uses that support natural ecosystems:
the ways the conservation of biodiversity can be incorporated into the planning of many human activities - agriculture?
-Agriculture= Agri- environmental schemes can optimise yields while benefiting wildlife (e.g. keeping hedgerows)
56
Land uses that support natural ecosystems:
the ways the conservation of biodiversity can be incorporated into the planning of many human activities - forestry?
-Forestry= forestry management that incorporates mixed- species forests of indigenous trees often increase wildlife value (increase food variety and yearly food availability)
57
Land uses that support natural ecosystems:
the ways the conservation of biodiversity can be incorporated into the planning of many human activities - fishing?
- Fishery management= improving fishing methods can exploit fish populations sustainably while reducing bycatch and environmental damage.
58
Land uses that support natural ecosystems:
the ways the conservation of biodiversity can be incorporated into the planning of many human activities - mineral exploitation?
- Mineral exploitation= mining always causes habitat damage, but good management can minimise the impact and site restoration after mine closure can produce valuable land, including wildlife habitats
59
Land uses that support natural ecosystems:
the ways the conservation of biodiversity can be incorporated into the planning of many human activities - waste disposal?
- Waste management- Pollutants are wastes for which a new use or good disposal method was not found. Good waste management reduces pollution, including the pollution that harms wildlife.
60
what are the 6 mineral resource management strategies?
- increasing reserves by exploiting low-grade ores using low temperature processes (Phyto mining, bioleaching)
- extending product lifespan through better design
- no planned obsolescence (the process of becoming outdated)
- replaceable parts/ no built-in batteries
-good spare part supplies/ technical support
- reduced unnecessary use eg excessive packaging
61
what are the 6 methods for waste management?
-repair
-re-use
-re-purpose
-refurbish
-recycle
-re-design to make the above easier
62
what are the 4 methods of pollution control?
A move from post-production treatment to non-release by changes in technology for example-
- industrial synergy, so wastes become resources
- better designs, so wastes can be separated
- change from internal combustion engines to fuel cells
- change from flue-gas desulphurisation to fuel desulphurisation/ low-sulphur fuels
63
How are energy supplies managed?
the use of renewable energy resources and the development of low-temperature manufacturing processes.
The development of other technologies that make the use of renewable energy easier, including storage and methods that increase the energy density.
64
how are diverse systems important?
As with diverse ecosystems, diverse technical systems are usually more stable e.g. societies that use a range of renewable energy resources rather than relying on one.
65
what puts people off implementing circular economy schemes
Many governments would like to protect the environment, create more sustainable lifestyles and support the circular economy. However, the cost of implementing such schemes may put companies at an economic disadvantage compared with companies in countries that do not support the initiatives.
66
what would help to implement the circular economy?
a more even approach can be achieved if groups such of countries use a common approach, such as the UN or EU. In a group of countries there may be better coordination and monitoring of activities than in an individual country where there is no external regulatory structure. Working as part of a group also enables countries that are protecting the environment more effectively to support those countries that are not being successful.
67
Eu initiatives that support a circular economy: Conservation of biodiversity?
(7 things)
- better protection for ecosystems: conservation of birds, habitats and the marine environments
- development of green infrastructure
- better management of green infrastructure
- better management of fish stocks
- more sustainable agriculture
- more sustainable forestry
- better control of introduced species
68
Eu initiatives that support a circular economy: Waste management and pollution control?
(9 things)
- better control of urban waste water
- minimal use of landfill
- more recycling of electrical and electronic appliances
- more recycling of used batteries
- more control of industrial emissions
- more use of composted materials as fertilisers
- reduction of food wastes
- reduced use of packaging
- increased recycling of packaging
69
Eu initiatives that support a circular economy: water?
-better management of water resources: quantity and quality
- more reuse of water
70
Eu initiatives that support a circular economy: Energy?
-more use of biofuels and other renewable fuels for transport
-improved energy efficiency of refrigerators and freezers
-increased use of wastes for energy generation
- increased use of renewable energy resources
71
Eu initiatives that support a circular economy: Design of manufactured applicances?
(7 things)
- improved design of products so they can be repaired to extend their useful lives.
- improved design of products so the materials can be reused or recycled
- reduced use of toxic materials in electronic appliances
- more use of recycled materials in road and building construction
- easier battery replacement
- reduced use of toxic materials in vehicle manufacture
- vehicle manufacture using recycled materials
72
What is the definition for biocapacity?
A measure of the biological productivity of an area.
73
What are many organisations now contributing towards?
Many organisations cooperate and contribute to an increased understanding of the global impacts of humans on the planet. The data they collect is presented in ways that allow changes and differences to be analysed and compared easily.
74
What is The Global Footprint network?
The Global Footprint Network includes over 70 organisations, including national Governments, research organisations and social benefit organisations. It produces information on ecological footprints, biocapacity and related issues.
75
What does the WWF do to help increase sustainability?
The WWF publishes an annual Living Planet report which provides a current assessment of changes in the impact of human activities on the planet and its ability to support life.
76
what is the definition of ecological footprint?
A method of assessing the sustainability of lifestyles by estimating the biologically productive area needed to provide the resources and services needed by an individual or group.
77
what is the five different areas biocapacity is calculated for?
Biocapacity is a measure of the biological productivity of an area. This could be the whole planet or a selected smaller area such as a country. It is calculated for five different types of area: forests, marine and inland waters, cropland, grazing land and built-up areas.
78
How is biocapacity affected by humans?
Biocapacity is affected by human management methods such as farming methods as well as the natural productivity. Although it can be increased by good human management, it can also be reduced by habitat destruction or degradation. The biocapacity that is calculated for an area does not assume that any land is reserved for the other species that could use the same area. Land that is set aside for other species and wildlife communities is called a biodiversity buffer.
79
What is land that is set aside for other species and wildlife communities called?
Land that is set aside for other species and wildlife communities is called a biodiversity buffer.
80
How do we know if our ecological footprint is sustainable or not?
An ecological footprint is the area of the Earth's surface that is needed to provide the resources that are used by the human population and to deal with the wastes produced. If the total footprint of the entire human population is less than the area of the planet, then the population can be supported sustainably. If it is larger, then the planet is being overexploited.
81
who can an ecological footprint be calculated for?
An ecological footprint can be calculated for an individual, group of people or activity.
82
what is a global hectare (gha)?
It is important to be able to compare the ecological footprint of a person, group of people or activity with the area needed to provide the resources and services required to support it. The biocapacities of different areas vary widely, so an average value is used. A global hectare refers to a hectare of land with a biocapacity that is the average of the whole planet.
83
What is earth overshoot day (previously Ecological Debt day)?
The concept of overshoot is used to describe the exploitation of the planet's resources that occurs at a faster rate than the replacement rate, so it will take more than a year for the Earth to recover from a year of human exploitation. Another way of considering this is that a year's worth of resources will ne exhausted on Earth Overshoot Day. After that date resources are being depleted and carbon dioxide will accumulate. Earth overshoot Day occurs earlier each year as human impacts increase. Earth overshoot day on 2016 was estimated to be August 8 th.
84
What is the definition for carbon footprint?
An estimate of the total releases of greenhouse gases caused by the actions of an individual, group of people, an organisation or activity. The amounts of all greenhouse gases are expressed as the equivalent amount of carbon dioxide.
85
what is the carbon footprint part of?
This is the part of an ecological footprint that relates to the emission of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases. It is usually expressed as a mass of carbon dioxide equivalent which allows other greenhouse gases to be included and allowance to be made for their differing strengths as greenhouse gases.
86
What different levels can the carbon footprint be related to?
The carbon footprint can be applied at different levels such as the footprint of an individual, an organisation, a country or the entire human population.
87
what should the carbon footprint calculation be?
The calculation should be comprehensive, including all direct and indirect releases of greenhouse gases. For example, estimates of the carbon dioxide emissions caused by a car should include a complete lifecycle analysis. This would include the obvious emissions from fuel combustion, but also the emissions released during the manufacture of the components to make the car, the items used in maintenance and its final disposal. A wider analysis would include its 'fair share' of the emissions in building and maintaining the road infrastructure: roads, carparks, road signals, and street lights.
88
Who calculates the living planet index?
The LPI is calculated by WWF.
89
What is the living planet index (LPI)?
The LPI is calculated by WWF as a measure of the planet's ecosystems. It compares over 1800 populations of over 3,700 species of vertebrates from terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems. Changes are compared with 1970 which was the first year of the study.
90
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
Key facts?
(5 things)
- OL Pejeta is a large private game reserve covering 360km² in central Kenya.
- For many years until the 1980s the area was managed as a cattle ranch where large wildlife species were not tolerated
- big herbivores were killed for being competitors and large predators were killed to prevent livestock predation.
- in the 1980s new ownership and a new management style developed: to ranch cattle and conserve wildlife
- this has become a model of pragmatic wildlife conservation alongside commercial livestock farming.
91
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
cattle- how do they select cattle to breed?
Boran cattle are very hardy, make efficient use of the available food and are resistant to many diseases
92
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
cattle- how do they control ticks?
why do they control ticks?
The cattle are 'dipped' regularly in insecticide to kill ticks. This reduces the total tick population in the reserve which improves the health of wild herbivores that therefore have fewer parasitic ticks and fewer tick-related health problems.
93
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
cattle- what are bomas and why do they use them?
The cattle are kept in small fenced areas (Bomas) overnight to reduce predator losses, especially lion attacks. the Bomas are moved every two or three weeks. The dung left by the cattle increases soil nutrient levels which increases plant growth, including a wide range of plants that may not otherwise have grown
94
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
wildlife management- electric fences?
high voltage perimeter electric fences are in place to prevent poachers from getting in and large game animals from escaping.
95
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya- biological corridors?
Although the reserve is large, many animals need to roam over larger areas in search pf food or water. Biological corridors link OL Pejeta to other conservation areas to allow animal movements. The exits from OL Pejeta are designed to allow all species to leave or enter freely, except rhinos. They would be at risk of poaching if they left the well-protected reserve. Strong wooden posts are sunk into the ground. They are too tall for rhinos to walk over them and too close together for them to walk between them.
checking for animal tracks and using motion-sensitive cameras help to monitor the movements of animals.
96
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
Elephant management?
Elephants live in family groups led by the oldest females who have long memories of the locations of good food supplies of food and water, especially in times of drought. When there is a drought, some elephants have the knowledge to break through the fences and lead the herd to better areas. The biological corridors allow the elephants to move between conservation areas without breaking fences so animals that repeatedly break fences are removed to other conservation areas if necessary.
97
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
lion tracking?
Radio collars are fitted on some of the lions in the six prides found in the reserve. This helps in collecting data on their movements and interactions with other lions and their prey species.
98
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
drones?
OL Pejeta has used drones to monitor wildlife and search for poachers
99
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
endangered species?
because the reserve is well guarded and managed, populations of several endangered species have been established. For some species, the animals have been brought in from other areas
100
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
Ecotourism?
Money paid by visitors to see the wildlife helps fund conservation projects
101
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya-
community links?
The reserve is managed to ensure the local human population benefits from wildlife
102
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya- community links- Community support?
Income from the reserve is used to support a range of community projects: health, education, water supplies
103
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya- community links- Employement?
Local people are employed in a wide variety of roles?
104
Case studies of sustainable development:
OL Pejeta Game Reserve, Kenya- community links- Cattle?
Local farmers are helped with breeding programmes to improve the quality of their cattle and increase incomes.
It has sometimes proved easier for small relatively self-contained communities to become motivated and organise themselves to develop more sustainable lifestyles.
Environmental science
flashcards
Decks in class (18)
# Cards
-
conditions for early life on earth27
-
Conservation of biodiversity72
-
Key Habitats64
-
Key vocab313
-
Agriculture171
-
Sustainability104
-
Ecology (part of conservation of life) (life processes in the biosphere)61
-
The living environment: The atmosphere160
-
The living environment: The hydrosphere112
-
The living environment: Mineral resources89
-
The living environment: Biogeochemical cycles67
-
The living environment: Soils71
-
Aquatic food production systems132
-
Forest resources66
-
Pollution396
-
Research methods124
-
Statistics24
-
Energy resources382
