Research methods Flashcards

Question

Sampling techniques: Methods: Pitfall traps limitations?

Answer 1

Limitations Only mobile animals that live on the ground surface are caught, meaning more mobile species are more likely to be caught. Trapped carnivorous animals may kill other organisms that have been caught. Some species avoid traps or can escape. If a preservative is used, it may attract or repel certain species.

Answer 2

Method Sweep nets are sturdy nets used to sample invertebrates in ground vegetation such as grassland. The net is swept through the vegetation so that organisms that are dislodged are caught. Standardisation of the method can be attempted by using the same number of sweeps of the same length, for a set time.

Answer 3

Limitations Mobile species may escape, such as flying insects.

Answer 4

Beating trays are used to sample invertebrates present on vegetation above the ground.

Answer 5

Method A sheet or tray is placed beneath the vegetation which is beaten several times with a stick. The invertebrates that are dislodged fall onto the sheet and are collected for identification and counting.

Answer 6

Limitations It is difficult to standardise the method between researchers e.g. the vigour of hitting the branches. Some species are not dislodged. Thick branches shake less, so organisms are less likely to be dislodged. Some species fly away and are not caught. Higher branches cannot be reached.

Answer 7

Light traps are used to collect night-flying insects that are attracted by bright lights.

Answer 8

Method Flying insects, especially moths that are attracted to the light fall into a container. The container is checked the following morning. The insects that have been caught are identified and counted.

Answer 9

Limitations Moths can only fly during their adult phase and activity is affected by the weather and seasons, so the failure to find a species does not mean it is absent. The brightness and light wavelengths emitted by the light can affect their attractiveness to insects, so it may be difficult to compare results produced by different types of traps.

Answer 10

Tullgren funnels are used to sample mobile invertebrates in leaf litter or the soil.

Answer 11

Method A sample of leaf litter or soil is placed on a mat beneath a light. The light and heat repel some mobile invertebrates which move downwards, pass through the mesh and fall into a container. The Tullgren funnel is left operating for a standard period of time. The invertebrates collected are identified and counted.

Answer 12

Limitations Only some species that are repelled by heat or light will be collected. Some organisms may die or stop moving due to the heating or desiccation before they are collected. Some organisms are too large to pass through the mesh.

Answer 13

Earthworms are difficult to observe, so they must be removed from soil for their populations to be monitored.

Answer 14

Method Mark out a sample area of a suitable size 0.5m x 0.5m. Remove vegetation that may hide worms at the surface. Add an irritant solution e.g. detergent or mustard in water. Keep adding until the soil is saturated..Saturate the surrounding area so worms don’t move sideways. Add more as the solution infiltrates into the soil. Collect worms that come to the surface. Continue collecting until no more worms appear / for suitable time / standardised time period. Count / measure / weigh / identify the collected worms.

Answer 15

Limitations Irritant solutions may not percolate through impermeable soil. Irritating solutions may not reach the deepest worms. Worms may move sideways or down. Worms may not move / Worms may move too slowly to be collected during the study period Worms may die.

Answer 16

Abundance How much of a species there is. Use the DAFOR scale to judge abundance. Is subjective, not quantitative (Dominant, abundant, frequent, occasional and rare).

Answer 17

Species richness Number of different species in an area.

Answer 18

Species diversity is measured using diversity indices, which quantify the relationship between the number of different species and the abundance of individuals within each species

Answer 19

Species frequency How dispersed a species is. Done by measuring the proportion of that species per sample.

Answer 20

Species density Number of species per area.

Answer 21

Percentage cover of plants Judge ground for ground flora and sky for tree cover.

Answer 22

However for animals you can estimate population using mark-capture-release method and the Lincoln index: Catch a sample, using a named technique and count them. Then mark them (shave fur, attach a ring on birds’ leg, tag ear and microchip). Release them. A set time later captures a second sample - count the total end count how many had been marked already.

Answer 23

Then use the Lincoln index - Must need a large sample for validity. Estimated population = 1st sample total x 2nd total Those marked in 2nd sample

Answer 24

This estimate relies on assumptions: -All individuals have the same chance of getting caught. -Marked individuals move freely within the population. -Marks do not fall off. -Marking doesn’t affect survival rate. -Population hasn’t changed in size since the 1st sample. -Animals are mobile and can be caught.

Answer 25

Assessing Biodiversity We can assess the variety and abundance of species in an area as well as their evenness (how comparable different frequencies are). D = diversity N = total number of all species n = Total number of one species ∑ = sum of all n (n - 1) D= N(N-1) --------- Σn(n-1) A higher value for D = higher biodiversity. The more stable an ecosystem is.

Answer 26

A calibrated light meter can be used to measure light intensity. The method must be standardised, especially the sensor orientation.

Answer 27

A thermometer.

Answer 28

This is normally measure with an electronic anemometer. The use of an anemometer must be standardised in the following ways: - distance from the ground - no obstacles to air flow - axis of rotation must be horizontal (impeller type) or vertical (rotating cup type) - impeller type anemometers must face into the wind

Answer 29

1 - whirling hygrometer 2- electronic humidity meter

Answer 30

This is the traditional method of measuring humidity. This uses two thermometers, one being dry while the other is kept wet. When they are spun, the wet bulb is cooled by the evaporation of the water, the dry bulb is not cooled. The rate of evaporation on the wet bulb depends on the humidity, so the temperature difference between the two thermometers can be compared with a table of values to estimate the humidity. To get an accurate reading, the hygrometer must be spun until there is no further cooling.

Answer 31

As with all electronic meters, they must be calibrated to ensure that the readings are accurate

Answer 32

- to estimate the turbidity of water caused by suspended solid particles

Answer 33

- secchi disc - turbidity bottle

Answer 34

- lower a secchi disc into the water until the black and white sectors cannot be distinguished - record the depth of the disc (length of string below the water level)

Answer 35

- the depth judgement is subjective - sunlight levels may affect visibility - the water may not be deep enough for the segments to become indistinguishable

Answer 36

- add a standard depth of water to a turbidity bottle - the hatched circles at the bottom of the bottle are observed to see which are obscured - note the coarsest circle which cannot be distinguished

Answer 37

- judging which circles can be distinguished is subjective - light levels may affect visibility

Answer 38

pH Meter: A device that measures the acidity or alkalinity of a solution by detecting the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) in the water. pH Paper: A piece of paper that contains a mixture of indicators, which change colour when exposed to different pH levels, allowing for a visual indication of the acidity or alkalinity.

Answer 39

A wide range of methods is used to measure the concentration of dissolved ions. Most methods use colourimetry where the extent of a colour change involving the ions to be measured is used to estimate the ion concentration. test strips electronic colourimeter ion selective electrodes

Answer 40

the test strips have bands of the reagents that change colour when they react with the ion to be measured the strips are dipped into the solutions being analysed then compared with a reference colour chart.

Answer 41

A reagent is added to the test solution. The intensity of the colour produced is measured by a light meter that is adjusted to measure specific wavelength of light.

Answer 42

An electronic probe is put into the test solution. The electrode potential that is produced by the solution between two electrodes is used as a measure of the ion concentration.

Answer 43

the presence of other ions can lead to inaccurate results

Answer 44

soil texture assesses the proportions of the mineral particles in different size categories: sand, silt, and clay. Two methods used to measure the proportions of sand, silt, and clay. component particle diameter range/ mm sand > 0.02-2 silt 0.002-0.02 clay <0.002

Answer 45

-soil sieves -sedimentations

Answer 46

- the stack of sieves is assembled in order of mesh size, with the coarsest mesh at the top - a dried, crushed soil sample is placed in the top sieve - the sieve stack is shaken by hand, or mechanically, for two minutes (long enough for no more particles to fall through). The particles drop through the sieves until they reach a sieve where holes are too small to pass through - each portion is weighed and the % composition of the three portions calculated - wet sieving is also possible. The sub-samples collected in each sieve must be dried before weighing . the top sieve (mesh size > 2mm) contains pebbles, twigs etc. These are not part of the soil. . the second sieve (0.02-2mm) contains sand. (some stacks have an extra sieve to separate coarse and fine sand) . the third sieve (0.002-0.02mm) contains silt . the base container holds clay

Answer 47

- larger objects are removed from a dried soil sample by using a 2mm sieve, or by hand, for example, pebbles, twigs - the soil is crushed to ensure the particles are separated - a measuring cylinder is about half filled with soil, then topped up with water - the top is sealed then the cylinder is shaken by repeatedly inverting it - the suspension is allowed to settle - the total depth of the settled soil components is measured after 2 minutes, 2 hours, and 2 days - the proportion of the total volume of each textual category can then be calculated

Answer 48

- colourimetry → with universal indicator solution → with universal indicator paper - electronic pH meters

Answer 49

Universal indicator is a mixture of pH indicators that show characteristic colour changes over the pH range of 0 to 14. It can be used as a solution or on pH test papers. Universal indicator solution- pH indicator chemicals absorb different wavelengths of light at different pHs. This colour change is predictable and can be used to measure pH by comparing the colour of the indicator with a reference chart. This method is simple but is subjective because it relies upon the judgement of colour. A standard colourimetric method can be used to estimate the pH of a soil sample. . add 2.5 cm³ of soil to a test tube . add 1cm³ of barium sulfate (toxic), which helps the soil particles to settle . add 3.5 cm³ distilled water . add 10 drops of universal indicator solution - firmly push a bung into the test tube . shake thoroughly and leave to stand for 15 minutes . compare the colour of the coloured solution above the soil with a colour chart

Answer 50

these are strips of absorbent paper that are impregnated with universal indicator solution. The papers can be dipped into the solutions to be tested and any colour changes compared with a reference chart. - for soil samples, the procedure is similar to that outlined for universal indicator solution. No universal indicator solution is added. A universal indicator paper is dipped into the settles water sample and the colour change is compared with a colour chart. - for water samples the papers are simply dipped into the sample and compared with a colour chart

Answer 51

using colour comparison charts is subjective

Answer 52

The quantitative values produced by electronic meters can be easy to interpret and compare but it is important to ensure the results area accurate, representative, and collected using a standardised method. - the pH meter should be calibrated using buffer solutions of known pH - the meter should be left to stabilise for long enough to give stable readings - the probe should be inserted to a standard depth

Answer 53

- the need to regularly calibrate the probe with buffer solutions makes this method less convenient than universal indicator papers

Answer 54

The water content of a soil can be estimated by noting the mass drop of a weighed soil sample when the water it contains is evaporated by heating. Method: 1- The soil sample is collected using a standardised technique such as a core sampler or auger. 2- The soil sample is placed in a sealed bag to prevent water loss by evaporation. 3- Larger mineral particles, organic detritus and visible organisms are removed. 4- The soil sample is placed in a pre-weighed evaporating basin or similar container. 5- The basin is heated at about 100°C for 24 hours. 6- The basin is reweighed. 7- stages 5) and 6) are repeated until a constant mass is reached. The percentage water content can then be calculated

Answer 55

percentage water content= wet soil mass- dry soil mass ---------------------------------------- x 100 wet soil mass

Answer 56

The organic matter content of a soil can be estimated by heating the dry soil to burn off the organic matter. Method: (follow steps 1-7 of the soil water content method) then (as you then have a completely dry sample): 8- A dry soil sample is placed in a pre-weighed crucible which is reweighed. 9- The crucible is heated strongly in a furnace or with a Bunsen burner. 10- The crucible is re-weighed. If the heating temperature is above 550°C then minerals may break down, for example, calcium carbonate breaking down, releasing carbon dioxide. This would give an inaccurately high estimate of organic matter as the reduction in mass would not be caused by the loss of organic matter alone. 11- Stages 9) and 10) are repeated until a constant mass is reached. The percentage organic matter content can then be calculated.

Answer 57

percentage organic matter content= Dry soil mass - Burnt soil mass -------------------------------------------- x 100 Dry soil mass

Answer 58

Soil bulk density is the mass of dry soil per unit volume. The volume of a soil sample can be controlled by using a soil auger of known cross-sectional area and pushing it into the soil at a chosen depth. The dry soil mass can be found by weighing the soil after it has been heated as about 100°C to constant weight.

Answer 59

A soil triangle is a triangular graph used to display the combined proportions of the three minerals soil components. Different areas of the graph represent soils with characteristic properties.

Answer 60

Fieldwork and laboratory activities These should include, but not limited to, the following. Ecological studies in suitable available habitats: - population size/ density - species frequency - species distribution - biodiversity - soil analysis -The effect of climatic variability on the use of renewable energy resources: insolation intensity, wind velocity. - Factors affecting the rate of heat loss: insolation, volume. - The use of biotic indices in monitoring pollution: lichens, aquatic invertebrates. - The effect of pH on seed germination. - The effect of water turbidity on light penetration. - The effect of inorganic nutrients on the growth of aquatic plants/ algae. - Factors affecting noise levels: distance from source, acoustic insolation. - The effect of slope and vegetation on rain splash erosion. - The effect of trees on microclimates.

Answer 61

Ecological monitoring is a very important part of wildlife conservation programmes, Good surveys are essential for many reasons: - to find out which species are present - to monitor the habitat conditions, how they change, and which conditions individual species require - to monitor features of populations and how they change over time such as: . population size . age structure . growth rates . breeding rates . territory size . population movements . reliable, representative data are important in making good conservation management decisions There are many different techniques that are used to monitor ecological conditions in ecosystems and the species that live there. The specific technique that is appropriate depends upon what is being measured. It is also affected by the rapid development of new technologies that may produce better results: more representative, quicker, more cost effective.

Answer 62

A rapidly expanding range of imagery systems is available to collect environmental info. spec - motion sensitive cameras . these can be used for habitat monitoring to detect the Prescence or activity of animals, using visible light photography during the day or infrared photography at night. - databases of physical features may be used to identify individuals e.g. tiger stripe patterns, whale shark spots, whale and dolphin fin damage. (image databases) . the individuals of some species can be recognised from image databases of unique features, for example, tiger facial stripes, cheetah tail markings, whale shark spot patterns, dolphin fin marks and injuries, zebra stripes off-spec - closed circuit TV (CCTV) . CCTV cameras can be used to observe animal behaviour with a lower risk of disturbance than if researchers visit the site, for example, for monitoring birds' nests.

Answer 63

A range of methods is used to identify individual animals that have been previously caught, for example, rings placed on bird's legs provide information on movements and lifespan if they are caught later.

Answer 64

Some species that cannot be seen can be detected by the sounds they produce. Sonograms: Sonograms are records of the sounds made by taxa such as dolphins, bats, and some insects. They can be used as evidence of their presence, abundance and activity.

Answer 65

A range of technologies can be used to monitor the location of individuals. - radio, GPS, and acoustic transmitters can be used to track animals in air or freshwater - in seawater, acoustic transmitters are used. They give real-time information of the current position of the animals carrying the transmitter. Geolocator tags may be used where transmitters would be too heavy, or where the battery life would be too short for a long-term study. They are small and only collect data on time and light. When the animal is re-caught, the data can be downloaded and used to work out the latitude and longitude of the animals for each day during the study. Geolocator tags are used to track the movements of birds that are too small to carry radio transmitters. The data on location can be downloaded if they are recaptured.

Answer 66

- to monitor habitat changes, - water availability, - rock density, - ice cover, - ice thickness,

Answer 67

blood, tissue samples, DNA, eDNA

Answer 68

It shows the Prescence of the species even if it is not actually seen

Answer 69

- nest/ burrows - droppings - can give information on diet, gender, territories - feeding marks, eg nuts, fruit - owl pellets - also give information on diet - tracks/ footprints - territorial marks, eg scratching posts

Answer 70

light intensity can be measured using an electronic light meter. As with all electronic meters, this should be calibrated to ensure it is reliable and can be used with a standardised technique. Factors that affect the intensity of solar power include the time of day, time of year, and cloud cover.

Answer 71

The ideal location for a wind farm is usually where the wind velocity is reliably high. The power available is not proportional to mean wind velocity as doubling wind velocity increases available power eight-fold (8x as great). The effect of local factors on wind velocity can be investigated: - distance from the ground - topography - aspect in relation to prevailing winds - nearby trees or buildings

Answer 72

The heat energy that must be added to a building, furnace, or heat store to maintain a constant temperature depends upon the rate at which heat is lost. Reducing the rate at which heat is lost will therefore reduce the rate at which heat must be added. - thermal insulation: The rate of heat loss depends upon the thermal conductivity of the surrounding material. The thicker the surrounding material, and the lower the thermal conductivity, the lower the rate of heat loss, but each additional layer has a smaller effect than the previous ones. If the value of the heat saving and the cost of the insulation are known then the optimum thickness of insulation can be calculated The estimation of heat loss requires careful planning and interpretation. The total amount of heat energy stored can be calculated using the specific heat capacity and temperature of the materials used. However, the temperature will vary throughout the volume, being lower near the surfaces and higher in the core. It may also be higher near the top, if water-filled containers are used where convection currents may occur.

Answer 73

The heat energy that must be added to a building, furnace, or heat store to maintain a constant temperature depends upon the rate at which heat is lost. Reducing the rate at which heat is lost will therefore reduce the rate at which heat must be added. - Volume: The heat energy stored in a hot mass of material is lost through the external surface. As the volume increases the surface area to volume ratio changes so that the rate of heat loss also changes. The total amount of heat loss will be increased because the surface area and amount of heat stored have also gone up. However, the rate of heat loss per unit volume goes down so the temperature drops more slowly. The principles of the effect of volume on the rate of heat loss can be investigated with a range of objects of different volumes. Factors that should be standardised: - the material the objects are made of, for example, clay cubes, water-filled round-bottomed flasks, or PET bottles, - 3D shape, - colour, darkness, and texture of the surface, - experimental conditions such as room temperature, air movements, and contact with other materials and surfaces, The estimation of heat loss requires careful planning and interpretation. The total amount of heat energy stored can be calculated using the specific heat capacity and temperature of the materials used. However, the temperature will vary throughout the volume, being lower near the surfaces and higher in the core. It may also be higher near the top, if water-filled containers are used where convection currents may occur.

Answer 74

A biotic index is a method of monitoring environmental conditions, usually pollutants, by the presence/ absence, state of health/ growth, and abundance/ diversity of species which would normally be present.

Answer 75

- they monitor current pollution levels and can be used to estimate past levels. - they can help trace the source of the pollution. - they can be very sensitive to small changes. -Very low levels of pollutants which bioaccumulate may be detectable in raised concentrations in organisms. - They do not need expensive monitoring equipment.

Answer 76

- sorting samples can be time-consuming. - identification can be difficult for the inexperienced.

Answer 77

- easy to identify - normally present if there is no pollution - normally common if there is no pollution - widely distributed rather than found in groups - easy to find ideally there will be a range of species with different sensitivities to pollution. In this case they may disappear in an order which indicates the level of pollution

Answer 78

the long-term effects of pollutants can be difficult to assess by measuring the levels of the pollutants that cause the damage as these can fluctuate widely. For example, the atmospheric concentrations of sulfur dioxide and other acidic gases vary widely, mainly due to the varying rate of their removal by rain. This makes it difficult to measure the concentration of pollutants such that they can be reliably correlated to the damage they cause. A better indication of the pollution problems may be achieved by measuring the impact of the pollution through the abundance and diversity of the organisms that are affected. Organisms that are sensitive to pollution give an indication of past pollutant levels as well as what is happening now. Lichens are particularly sensitive to acidic conditions, with different species having different sensitivities so the presence or absence, size and state if health of different species can be used to produce a scale of the severity of pollution. This can be used to estimate long-term pollution conditions at different locations.

Answer 79

- the surface on which the lichens are found, as materials such as limestone or granite will also affect the pH, - the aspect of the surface in relation to the prevailing wind and therefore exposure to rain, - factors that influence lichen growth such as exposure to sunlight It is common to study lichen distribution on gravestones as their orientation normally faces west-east and the substrate can be standardised: they are often made of granite.

Answer 80

A range of aquatic invertebrate taxa with different sensitivities to pollution are used to monitor pollution. They meet the desired criteria. The following taxa are often included: stonefly larvae, mayfly larvae, caddisfly larvae, freshwater shrimps, freshwater hoglouse, midge larvae

Answer 81

High and low pH conditions denature proteins and inactivate enzymes. Each species has its own range of tolerance. To investigate the effect of pH on germination, a number of choices must be made. - choice of plant species- some species make good experimental subjects: . small seeds . genetic uniformity . high normal germination rate . rapid germination These species are not necessarily the ones that produce results which can be applied directly to natural ecosystems

Answer 82

-each test must use enough seeds to produce results that can be distinguished from each other if there is a real difference, but not so many than unnecessary extra work is undertaken. - each test must be replicated to allow anomalies to be identified and the results to be statistically valid

Answer 83

the range of pHs tested should cover the full range at which germination can take place. This can be established with a preliminary study using a range of widely spaced pHs. The pH range investigated in the final experiment would cover the range from the pH below the lowest pH at which germination occurred to the pH above the highest pH at which germination occurred.

Answer 84

the experiment should be continued until it is clear that seeds that have not germinated are not going to. The possibility that pH could delay germination must be eliminated.

Answer 85

- temperature: the temperature should be standardised, ideally at a constant temperature that would occur during natural germination, - nutrient supplies: seeds do not need to absorb nutrients to germinates. They would only need to be provided if the plants were going to be grown beyond the time at which they would have exhausted the nutrients originally present in the seed, - using soil as a growth medium replicates the natural growth situation but may affect the experiment conditions, including pH,

Answer 86

Measuring the turbidity of water is an important way of monitoring soil erosion. The turbidity of water can be measured using a number of techniques in the field or in the laboratory. Secchi discs and turbidity bottles give semi-quantitative or qualitative results. Electronic meters give quantitative data.

Answer 87

Most electric turbidimeters measure the amount of light that is scattered by the suspended particles in a water sample, usually at 90° to the angle at which it entered the water. An increase in turbidity causes more light to scatter, so the light reading rises. The light readings give relative values of the concentration of the suspended particles in the water sample. Quantitative estimates can be produced if a calibration curve is produced by measuring the light scatter from samples with known amounts of suspended matter. ( samples with higher turgidities cause more light scattering and give higher light readings )

Answer 88

- brightness of the light bulb, - colour of light emitted by the lightbulb, - distance to the sample holder, - material used to produce the calibration samples, ( a dark room with no other light sources will produce more representative results )

Answer 89

The inorganic nutrients washed off fields or released in sewage effluent can increase the rate of growth of plants and algae and contribute to eutrophication.

Answer 90

The increase in growth caused by the availability of nutrients may cause an increase in biomass as more sunlight is converted into carbohydrates. Living matter is mainly water, so measuring living biomass is not necessarily a good indicator of the amount of carbohydrate present. It is especially difficult with aquatic plants where the surface water will affect the mass but drying it off may damage the plants. Dry biomass is a more precise measure but involves killing the plants or algae so long term studies cannot be carried out on the same organisms. If the increase in dry biomass is estimated on several occasions over a period of time then a large number of original samples will be needed since each is destroyed when it is weighed. For some aquatic plants, such as duckweed, leaf area can be used as a reasonable estimate of biomass and allows continued use of the same plants.

Answer 91

- temperature, - light levels, If nutrient solutions need to be topped up, it is best to transfer the plants to new solutions rather than adding more nutrients to the remaining nutrient solution which will have an unknown nutrient concentration.

Answer 92

Noise levels can be measured with an electronic sound level meter but if one is unavailable many mobile phones incorporate sound level meters. If uncalibrated meters are used then the same one should be used to collect all the results. This will ensure that the degree of error is constant so they can be compared with each other.

Answer 93

The fact that noise levels decline as the distance from the source increases is predictable. Collecting quantitative data and assessing variations in noise levels from sources such as roads and airports is more difficult. Because the decibel scale is logarithmic, a simple arithmetic mean does no give a true representation of the typical sound levels. The presence of sound absorbing or reflecting surfaces and topography can affect the noise levels, so the study sites should be as similar as possible.

Answer 94

This may be investigated under laboratory conditions with a source of sound, such as a speaker, surrounded by acoustic insulation of different materials or thickness. The effectiveness of insulation around roads or airports such as baffle mounds, embankments, walls, fences, or vegetation can be compared.

Answer 95

Scientific experimentation relies upon good experimental design which requires a knowledge of all the variables that could influence the results. Ideally, all the variables that are not being investigated should be standardised so that the only factor that effects the dependent variable (the results) is the independent variable that is being deliberately controlled. This is easier to do under laboratory conditions than under field conditions. Factors that cannot be standardised should be measured so that their influence on the results can be assessed.

Answer 96

- rainfall intensity - soil texture - soil compaction - organic matter content - soil depth - permeability of the material beneath the soil - precipitation rate - volume per unit area per unit time - raindrop size - raindrop height drop - gradient - vegetation cover - root binding Many experimental procedures have limitations that are an unavoidable part of the method. It is important that these should be known and their impacts on the validity of the results appreciated and noted.

Answer 97

Trees affect the local climate in and around woodlands. Even individual trees produce microclimates. An understanding of how these microclimates are produced and the affects they have can alter management plans for urban areas and rural areas such as farmland, forestry plantations, and woodlands for wildlife conservation.

Answer 98

- tree height - foliage characteristics - tree spacing - total area of woodland

Answer 99

- wind direction - wind velocity - light levels - humidity - soil moisture - temperature To measure the effect of trees on microclimates the general weather conditions must also be known to identify local differences

Answer 100

- preliminary studies may be used to ensure the study will produce representative data - practical activities should be carried out with consideration of their environmental impacts and how these can be minimised.

Research methods Flashcards

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