How do psychologists define intelligence?
Spearman (1904): A general mental ability involving the eduction of relations and correlates
Wechsler (1939): The global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment
Sternberg (1985): Mental capacity to automatise information processing and respond appropriately to novelty (includes meta-, performance, and knowledge-acquisition components)
Kanazawa (2000): Ability to acquire and use knowledge to solve problems and adapt to the world
Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory
Intelligence reflects mental energy used to perform tasks
Two components:
g factor: General intelligence underlying all cognitive tasks (most important)
s factors: Specific abilities related to particular tasks
Fluid Intelligence
Inherent capacity to learn, reason, and solve novel problems
Associated with the prefrontal cortex
Considered relatively culture-free
Declines with age
What is crystallised intelligence?
Knowledge and skills acquired through experience and education
Develops from investment of fluid intelligence in cultural contexts
Highly culture-dependent (e.g. reading comprehension)
How does cognitive psychology approach intelligence?
Focuses on information-processing processes common to all people
Emphasises what people do to behave intelligently rather than just test scores
What is Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of intelligence?
Intelligence consists of processes that are universal
“Successful intelligence” means achieving success within one’s cultural context
What are the three functions in Sternberg’s model?
Executive functions: Planning, strategy selection, monitoring
Performance functions: Implementing selected strategies
Knowledge-acquisition functions: Learning new information and strategies
What are the three types of intelligence in Sternberg’s theory?
Analytic intelligence: Solving familiar problems
Creative intelligence: Dealing with novelty using insight and automaticity
Practical intelligence: Adapting to the environment (e.g. career, social skills)
Wisdom (Extension to Sternberg Triarchic Theory)
Ability to choose how to behave
Knowing when and how to apply analytic, creative, and practical intelligence appropriately
IQ and Measurement of Intelligence
Binet introduced the concept of IQ
IQ tests predict school performance reasonably well
Claims of “culture-free” testing are controversial
What is the nature vs nurture debate in intelligence?
Intelligence reflects both genetic potential and environmental influence
Roughly 50/50 contribution
Genes require supportive environments to be expressed
Gender Differences in Intelligence
No significant differences in general intelligence
Male scores show greater variability
Females: Higher verbal abilities
Males: Higher visuospatial abilities (e.g. mental rotation)
Differences vary across cultures → likely due to social factors
What is personality?
A relatively stable and consistent pattern of thoughts, behaviours, and attitudes
Influences how we view ourselves and the world
Has some biological basis but is primarily shaped by environment
What traits did early personality theories propose?
Personality can be described using three main traits:
Psychoticism
Extraversion
Neuroticism
How do extraverts and introverts differ?
Extraverts: Prefer excitement, stimulation, and social activity
Introverts: Prefer quiet environments and introspection
What characterises neuroticism?
Emotional instability
Anxiety, fearfulness, tension
Slow to return to emotional balance after stress
Opposite: emotionally stable individuals return quickly to equilibrium
What is psychoticism?
Traits include aggression, coldness, impulsivity, lack of empathy
Relatively rare
Not inherently negative—often found in senior management
Are personality traits good or bad?
Traits are not inherently good or bad
Modern approaches often use the OCEAN (Big Five) model to describe personality
What are “learning styles” and do they affect how we learn?
Learning styles (VAK) are a persuasive myth—no strong evidence they improve learning outcomes
People naturally adopt different approaches in different situations
Learners can learn to adopt new approaches deliberately
Becoming a deep learner
- organise and structure content into a coherent whole
- have determination to achieve, understand and engage in academic work
- attempt to develop some intrinsic curiosity for the subject + develop background
- critically analyse new ideas
How can you develop deep learning skills?
Organise and structure content into coherent frameworks
Develop determination to engage, understand, and achieve academically
Cultivate intrinsic curiosity and background knowledge
Critically analyse new ideas
How do individual differences affect learning?
Intelligence and personality can influence learning approaches and outcomes
Learners vary in motivation, engagement, and strategy preference
What is the Reasoned Action Approach and how does it explain behaviour?
Developed by Fishbein and Ajzen (includes Theory of Reasoned Action & Theory of Planned Behaviour)
Models how beliefs (based on background factors) influence behaviour
Initial beliefs vary between individuals
Effective for behaviours like dieting, exercise, smoking cessation, safe sex, pro-environmental actions
“Reasoned” does not mean rational or intentional
How are interventions designed using the Reasoned Action Approach?
Target all three types of beliefs:
Behavioural beliefs (perceived outcomes)
Normative beliefs (social expectations)
Control beliefs (perceived ease/difficulty)
Include multiple activities (e.g., discussion for social norms)
Use implementation intentions: “If I ___, then I ___”
Require time for reflection and implementation
