1
Q
A psychologist observes that newborn infants are capable of recognizing human faces within hours of birth, even though they have had very limited visual experience. Which philosophical perspective does this most strongly support?
A) Empiricism
B) Nativism
C) Behaviorism
D) Constructivism
A
B) Nativism
2
Q
A child grows up in a bilingual household and becomes fluent in both languages. However, her twin sister, adopted at birth and raised in a monolingual household, only speaks one language. Which theory of knowledge and behavior best explains this difference?
A) Nativism
B) Empiricism
C) Interactionism
D) Dualism
A
C) Interactionism
3
Q
A researcher believes that children are born with no knowledge or abilities and that everything they know is learned through sensory experience and interaction with their environment. Which philosopher’s viewpoint does this best align with?
A) René Descartes
B) John Locke
C) Jean Piaget
D) Noam Chomsky
A
B) John Locke
4
Q
A teacher believes that all children, regardless of background or genetics, can be taught any subject effectively if given the right environment and learning experiences. She designs her classroom to maximize sensory input, hands-on learning, and real-world exploration. Which philosophical view is this teaching approach most aligned with?
A) Nativism
B) Empiricism
C) Interactionism
D) Rationalism
A
B) Empiricism
5
Q
Two identical twins have the same eye color and height potential based on their genes. However, one twin receives better nutrition during childhood and grows taller than the other. What concept does this difference best illustrate?
A) Genotype
B) Phenotype
C) Heritability
D) Genetic mutation
A
B) Phenotype
6
Q
A child inherits a genetic mutation that makes them prone to a metabolic disorder. However, due to early medical intervention and a strict diet, the child never shows symptoms of the disorder. What does this example demonstrate?
A) Genotype determining phenotype directly
B) Phenotype overriding genotype
C) Environmental influence on phenotype expression
D) Genetic engineering
A
C) Environmental influence on phenotype expression
7
Q
A researcher is studying intelligence in the following groups:
Group A: Monozygotic twins raised apart
Group B: Monozygotic twins raised together
Group C: Dizygotic twins raised together
Group D: Unrelated adopted children raised together
Which comparison best helps isolate the effect of genetic influence on intelligence?
A. Group A vs. Group B
B. Group B vs. Group C
C. Group A vs. Group D
D. Group C vs. Group D
A
C. Group A vs. Group D
8
Q
A psychologist finds that monozygotic twins raised together have more similar memory scores than dizygotic twins raised together, and both groups are more similar than unrelated children raised together. What does this pattern suggest?
A. Memory is influenced only by environment
B. Genes play a significant role in memory
C. Environment has no effect on memory
D. Twins always score higher on memory tests
A
B. Genes play a significant role in memory
9
Q
Which pair would best help isolate the influence of the environment on IQ, assuming genetic factors are held constant?
A. Dizygotic twins growing up together vs. unrelated individuals living apart
B. Monozygotic twins growing up together vs. monozygotic twins growing up apart
C. Siblings growing up together vs. dizygotic twins growing up together
D. Monozygotic twins growing up apart vs. dizygotic twins growing up together
A
B. Monozygotic twins growing up together vs. monozygotic twins growing up apart
10
Q
If monozygotic twins raised apart show highly similar IQ scores, what would this most strongly support?
A. The idea that early childhood environment is the main factor in IQ
B. The idea that genetics has a strong influence on IQ
C. That IQ is randomly determined
D. That siblings are better predictors of IQ than twins
A
B. The idea that genetics has a strong influence on IQ
11
Q
Which group comparison would best help to determine the effect of genetic similarity on IQ, with environment being relatively constant?
A. Dizygotic twins growing up together vs. siblings growing up together
B. Monozygotic twins growing up together vs. dizygotic twins growing up together
C. Siblings growing up together vs. unrelated individuals living apart
D. Monozygotic twins growing up apart vs. unrelated individuals growing up apart
A
B. Monozygotic twins growing up together vs. dizygotic twins growing up together
12
Q
A researcher finds that siblings raised together show more similarity in IQ than dizygotic twins raised apart. What conclusion is most supported?
A. The environment plays a significant role in IQ development
B. Siblings are genetically more similar than twins
C. Genetics plays no role in IQ
D. Monozygotic twins should always have the same IQ
A
A. The environment plays a significant role in IQ development
13
Q
A student spends 60 minutes studying vocabulary in one day and another student spreads 60 minutes of study across 3 days (20 minutes each day). According to the total time hypothesis, which student should perform better on a recall test?
A. The student who studied in one long session
B. The student who studied across three days
C. Both should perform similarly since total time was the same
D. The student who took breaks between every 5 minutes of study
A
C. Both should perform similarly since total time was the same
14
Q
Which of the following best represents Ebbinghaus’s finding on repetition and memory retention?
A. Memory retention improves up to a point, then declines with overlearning
B. Memory retention improves linearly with the number of recitations
C. Memory retention is only affected by the time of day learning occurs
D. Repetition does not improve long-term memory at all
A
B. Memory retention improves linearly with the number of recitations
15
Q
A teacher wants students to remember key terms for a test. Based on the total time hypothesis, which strategy should work best?
A. Encourage students to review until they feel confident, regardless of time
B. Require a fixed number of repetitions, regardless of study time
C. Set a total amount of time for studying, allowing students to divide it as they prefer
D. Ask students to review terms only once per day
A
C. Set a total amount of time for studying, allowing students to divide it as they prefer
16
Q
If Ebbinghaus needed half as much time to relearn a list after 32 recitations compared to 16 recitations, what does this suggest?
A. Repetition creates diminishing returns
B. The forgetting curve levels off after initial learning
C. Greater initial practice leads to faster relearning
D. Nonsense syllables are harder to retain than meaningful content
A
C. Greater initial practice leads to faster relearning
17
Q
Two violin students each practice for 10 hours per week. Student A focuses on refining weak spots with the help of a coach and receives regular feedback. Student B simply plays through pieces from start to finish. After 6 months, Student A shows significantly more improvement. What best explains this difference?
A. Student A is more naturally talented
B. Student B is practicing less frequently
C. Student A is engaging in deliberate practice
D. Student B is spending more time warming up
E. Student A plays easier pieces
A
C. Student A is engaging in deliberate practice
18
Q
Which of the following scenarios best supports a limitation of the total time hypothesis?
A. A student who studies 10 hours aces an exam, while one who studies 5 hours performs worse
B. A dancer with 15,000 hours of practice still struggles with basic technique
C. A pianist improves steadily as they increase practice time from 3 to 5 hours daily
D. Two chess players who both practice 2 hours daily improve at the same rate
E. An athlete forgets skills after taking a month-long break
A
B. A dancer with 15,000 hours of practice still struggles with basic technique
19
Q
Why is deliberate practice considered more effective than simple repetition in skill development?
A. It requires less total time to see improvement
B. It focuses on perfecting what is already well-known
C. It removes the need for feedback or coaching
D. It targets specific weaknesses and encourages gradual refinement
E. It relies on natural talent to guide learning
A
D. It targets specific weaknesses and encourages gradual refinement
20
Q
Which student is most likely to reach expert-level performance according to current research?
A. One who practices whenever they feel like it, even if inconsistently
B. One who follows a fixed daily schedule, repeating the same routine daily
C. One who identifies weaknesses, works to improve them, and gets feedback
D. One who has a natural talent and learns quickly without practicing
E. One who imitates experts without understanding the process
A
C. One who identifies weaknesses, works to improve them, and gets feedback
21
Q
A researcher finds that among 100 elite memory competitors, practice time ranged from 6,000 to 20,000 hours before reaching expertise. What conclusion does this most strongly support?
A. The total time hypothesis fully explains expertise
B. The 10k hour rule is accurate and universal
C. Natural ability and how one practices also influence expertise
D. Repetition is the most effective way to become an expert
E. Expertise depends entirely on external coaching
A
C. Natural ability and how one practices also influence expertise
22
Q
A psychology student is designing a memory experiment. They test two groups:
Group 1 sees repeated words with no gap between repetitions.
Group 2 sees repeated words spaced 10 items apart.
According to the lag effect, which group should recall the repeated words better?
A. Group 1, because immediate repetition strengthens memory most
B. Group 2, because spaced repetitions improve recall
C. Both groups will perform equally
D. Neither group will recall repeated words better than new ones
A
B. Group 2, because spaced repetitions improve recall
23
Q
Which of the following best illustrates the repetition effect?
A. A student recalls a word that was shown once early in the list
B. A student forgets a word shown in the middle of a list
C. A student remembers a word that was shown twice
D. A student remembers only the last few items in the list
A
C. A student remembers a word that was shown twice
24
Q
A teacher wants to help students remember key terms more effectively. Which method uses both the repetition effect and the lag effect?
A. Highlighting key terms once while reading the textbook
B. Reviewing the same terms immediately after reading them
C. Repeating key terms at the end of the lesson only
D. Repeating key terms at intervals throughout the lesson and homework
A
D. Repeating key terms at intervals throughout the lesson and homework
25
Which of the following best explains why no lag (massed practice) resulted in the worst memory performance?
A. Immediate relearning allows the brain to process information more deeply.
B. Spaced repetitions create interference, reducing retention.
C. Massed practice leads to faster forgetting because it lacks effortful retrieval.
D. Longer lags cause fatigue, so no lag is more efficient
C. Massed practice leads to faster forgetting because it lacks effortful retrieval.
26
A company wants to train employees on safety procedures that they'll need to recall immediately and again a year later. Based on the study's findings, which strategy would best balance short-term and long-term retention?
A. Massed practice with no lag
B. Relearning after a 1-day lag
C. Relearning after a 15-day lag
D. Relearning after a 100-day lag
C. Relearning after a 15-day lag
27
A teacher is designing a review schedule for her students, who will be tested in one week (7 days). She considers scheduling a review session 10 days after the initial lesson, following the 10–20 day optimal lag found in the study. Based on the study results, what is the most likely outcome of this strategy?
A. This will maximize performance because the 10–20 day lag always leads to the best results
B. The lag effect will be minimal, and performance may not improve significantly for a 7-day retention interval
C. Students will forget the material by the test date because of the long lag
D. A shorter lag would be worse because it encourages massed practice
B. The lag effect will be minimal, and performance may not improve significantly for a 7-day retention interval
28
A student reviews her notes 5 minutes after initially studying them. According to the Deficient Processing Hypothesis, why might this review be ineffective?
A. She is more likely to encode the information in multiple contexts.
B. The short lag makes retrieval harder, strengthening memory.
C. The information still feels familiar, so she processes it less deeply.
D. She will forget more due to interference from earlier study sessions
C. The information still feels familiar, so she processes it less deeply.
29
A language learner spaces out her vocabulary practice by reviewing words in different settings — on the bus, in a café, and at home. Which memory theory best explains why this improves long-term retention?
A. Study-Phase Retrieval Hypothesis
B. Encoding Variability Hypothesis
C. Deficient Processing Hypothesis
D. Interference Theory
B. Encoding Variability Hypothesis
30
Why might a longer lag between study sessions actually improve memory, according to the Study-Phase Retrieval Hypothesis?
A. It increases familiarity with the material.
B. It decreases the cognitive load of retrieval.
C. Retrieval becomes harder, which strengthens memory more.
D. It eliminates interference from similar items
C. Retrieval becomes harder, which strengthens memory more.
31
A training program asks employees to review safety procedures immediately after an initial session. According to the Deficient Processing Hypothesis, what is the likely outcome?
A. It enhances attention and deepens memory encoding.
B. It reduces retrieval difficulty, enhancing learning.
C. It leads to shallow processing due to familiarity, reducing effectiveness.
D. It maximizes encoding variability through immediate context switching.
C. It leads to shallow processing due to familiarity, reducing effectiveness.
32
A psychology professor advises students to quiz themselves a few days after learning material rather than immediately. This advice is most supported by which hypothesis?
A. Encoding Variability Hypothesis
B. Study-Phase Retrieval Hypothesis
C. Levels of Processing Theory
D. Deficient Processing Hypothesis
B. Study-Phase Retrieval Hypothesis
33
During study, Maria finds that retrieving some concepts is difficult after a few days, but she eventually succeeds. According to memory theory, why is this desirable?
A. Difficulty in retrieval indicates she didn’t learn the material well.
B. Successful retrieval after effort leads to stronger memory.
C. She should relearn the material in the same context to reduce effort.
D. She should aim for easier, faster retrieval to maximize memory
B. Successful retrieval after effort leads to stronger memory.
34
A researcher is analyzing fMRI data and finds that faces that were better remembered showed high variation in brain activation patterns across repeated presentations. Based on this result, which hypothesis does this most strongly support?
A. Study-Phase Retrieval Hypothesis
B. Encoding Variability Hypothesis
C. Deficient Processing Hypothesis
D. Dual-Coding Theory
B. Encoding Variability Hypothesis
35
Imagine the opposite result: the fMRI analysis shows that better-remembered faces had more consistent (similar) activation patterns across repetitions. Which hypothesis does this result align with?
A. Levels of Processing Theory
B. Encoding Variability Hypothesis
C. Study-Phase Retrieval Hypothesis
D. Interference Theory
C. Study-Phase Retrieval Hypothesis
36
In the study, participants were exposed to repeated face presentations with varying lags (from 1 to 20 intervening faces). According to the Study-Phase Retrieval Hypothesis, how should lag influence pattern similarity and memory performance?
A. Longer lags should reduce pattern similarity but increase memory strength.
B. Shorter lags should lead to more variability in brain activity and better memory.
C. Longer lags make retrieval harder, increasing similarity if retrieval is successful, thus enhancing memory.
D. Lag should have no effect on pattern similarity if attention is constant
C. Longer lags make retrieval harder, increasing similarity if retrieval is successful, thus enhancing memory.
37
A neuroscientist compares brain activation patterns during repeated face presentations and finds that remembered faces (R) show higher pattern similarity across repetitions than forgotten faces (F). Which theory does this result support?
A. Encoding Variability Hypothesis
B. Levels of Processing Theory
C. Study-Phase Retrieval Hypothesis
D. Interference Theory
C. Study-Phase Retrieval Hypothesis
38
In a follow-up analysis, the researcher discovers that forgotten faces (F) show less neural pattern similarity across repetitions compared to remembered ones. Which conclusion is most consistent with the Encoding Variability Hypothesis?
A. Memory benefits from neural consistency across repetitions.
B. Variability in neural activation enhances encoding and retrieval.
C. Faces are easier to retrieve when presented with minimal lag.
D. Retrieval strength is unrelated to neural pattern changes
B. Variability in neural activation enhances encoding and retrieval.
39
A cognitive neuroscience study found that greater similarity in brain activity patterns across repeated presentations of face stimuli predicted better later recall, while lower similarity was associated with forgetting. What is the best interpretation of this result?
A. Encoding the same stimulus in multiple varied ways leads to stronger memory.
B. Familiarity-based processing increases variability and enhances recall.
C. Successful retrieval during learning leads to stable neural patterns, strengthening memory.
D. Changes in reaction time are the primary factor influencing memory performance
C. Successful retrieval during learning leads to stable neural patterns, strengthening memory.
40
A student spreads out their study sessions with increasing delays: 1 day, 5 days, 10 days, and then 30 days. They notice improvement in memory up to 10 days, but little to no gain afterward. What does this observation suggest about the spacing effect?
A. The longer the lag, the better the memory — the effect is always linear.
B. The spacing effect follows a threshold pattern where benefit increases indefinitely.
C. There is an optimal lag range for maximizing retention, beyond which additional spacing provides little to no benefit.
D. Retention improves only with massed practice and immediate repetition.
C. There is an optimal lag range for maximizing retention, beyond which additional spacing provides little to no benefit.
41
A student is preparing for an exam and finds they can already recall several key concepts perfectly. According to memory research, what should the student do to maximize long-term retention?
A. Skip the items they already know to save time for harder material.
B. Continue testing themselves on all items, even the ones they know well.
C. Re-study the known items passively by re-reading their notes.
D. Focus only on practicing recognition questions for easier success
B. Continue testing themselves on all items, even the ones they know well
42
A learner wants to retain information for several weeks. Which of the following strategies is most effective according to the research?
A. Cramming the night before the exam using flashcards.
B. Only reviewing items that were previously forgotten.
C. Re-studying all items using deliberate, spaced practice and retrieval.
D. Using only recognition-based multiple-choice quizzes
C. Re-studying all items using deliberate, spaced practice and retrieval.
43
Two students are studying for a biology exam.
Student A uses flashcards and answers each one immediately after reading the definition.
Student B tries to recall the definitions after a long delay and only checks the answer after trying hard to retrieve it.
According to the retrieval effort hypothesis, which student is more likely to remember the material long term, and why?
A. Student A, because immediate retrieval strengthens recognition.
B. Student A, because less effort reduces cognitive load.
C. Student B, because harder retrieval strengthens memory when successful
D. Student B, but only if the material is presented in a familiar context.
C. Student B, because harder retrieval strengthens memory when successful
44
A student studies vocabulary words and spaces out their practice sessions. One word is reviewed after 30 minutes (short ISI), and another after 3 days (long ISI). According to memory research, what is the most likely outcome?
A. The word reviewed after 30 minutes will be harder to retrieve but better remembered.
B. The word reviewed after 3 days will be harder to retrieve, but if recalled, it will be remembered longer.
C. Both words will be equally well remembered as long as they are successfully retrieved.
D. The shorter ISI will make retrieval more difficult and therefore enhance memory more
B. The word reviewed after 3 days will be harder to retrieve, but if recalled, it will be remembered longer
45
A teacher uses a retrieval-based practice method and sets two learning goals:
Group A must recall each concept once (Criterion 1).
Group B must recall each concept ten times (Criterion 10).
Which of the following statements best reflects what the retrieval effort hypothesis and spacing effects predict about learning outcomes?
A. Group A will retain the concepts longer due to greater retrieval effort.
B. Group B will have stronger retention overall, but the benefit of each additional retrieval will decrease.
C. Group B will continue to improve linearly with each retrieval.
D. Group A will benefit more from repetition because the effort remains high
B. Group B will have stronger retention overall, but the benefit of each additional retrieval will decrease.
46
A student is preparing for an exam and decides to test themselves on all topics rather than just re-reading the material. According to research, what advantage does testing all material have over simply studying it again?
A. Testing only helps with topics the student already knows well.
B. Testing all material, even difficult items, enhances memory retention better than re-studying.
C. Testing all material reduces memory retention compared to passive studying.
D. Studying is more effective than testing because it requires less effort
B. Testing all material, even difficult items, enhances memory retention better than re-studying.
47
A teacher provides quizzes to students and gives delayed feedback (after a day), rather than immediate feedback. Why might delayed feedback be more beneficial for long-term memory retention?
A. Delayed feedback reduces retrieval effort, making learning easier.
B. Delayed feedback enhances the challenge and strengthens memory by increasing retrieval effort before feedback.
C. Immediate feedback is more motivating, so delayed feedback has no benefit.
D. Feedback timing does not influence memory retention
B. Delayed feedback enhances the challenge and strengthens memory by increasing retrieval effort before feedback.
48
A student studies a subject because they find it fascinating and enjoy mastering the material, without expecting any external rewards. This is an example of:
A. Extrinsic motivation
B. Intrinsic motivation
C. Social motivation
D. Avoidance motivation
B. Intrinsic motivation
49
A student studies mainly because their parents promise a reward for high exam scores. What might be a potential downside of relying mostly on this type of motivation?
A. The student will naturally develop a love for the subject.
B. The student’s motivation may decrease if the external rewards stop.
C. The student will always retain information better than intrinsically motivated students.
D. Extrinsic motivation ensures lifelong learning habits
B. The student’s motivation may decrease if the external rewards stop.
50
In a study, participants were more likely to remember answers to questions they were highly curious about. What does this finding suggest about the relationship between intrinsic motivation and memory?
A. Curiosity impairs memory because it distracts from learning the answer.
B. Intrinsic motivation, like curiosity, enhances learning and memory retention.
C. Memory is unaffected by motivation if the material is tested equally.
D. Extrinsic rewards must accompany curiosity to affect memory.
B. Intrinsic motivation, like curiosity, enhances learning and memory retention.
51
What unexpected effect did high-curiosity questions have on memory for unrelated stimuli (e.g., faces) presented after the questions?
A. They caused interference, reducing memory for the faces.
B. They had no effect on memory for unrelated information.
C. They enhanced memory for the faces through a motivational "spillover" effect.
D. They impaired face memory by redirecting attention
C. They enhanced memory for the faces through a motivational "spillover" effect.
52
What is the significance of increased activity in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and nucleus accumbens during high-curiosity trials?
A. It shows decreased attention due to over-stimulation.
B. It reflects activation of brain regions associated with punishment.
C. It suggests involvement of dopamine-related reward systems in learning.
D. It indicates that curiosity reduces the brain’s response to learning
C. It suggests involvement of dopamine-related reward systems in learning
53
During a neuroscience experiment, participants show increased activity in both the VTA and nucleus accumbens (NAc) when answering high-curiosity trivia questions. What is the most likely effect of this neural activity?
A. Decreased attention to the trivia question due to overstimulation
B. Inhibition of hippocampal activity, reducing memory for the question
C. Enhanced hippocampal plasticity, improving memory for both trivia and related stimuli
D. Increased stress levels, which block encoding of new information
C. Enhanced hippocampal plasticity, improving memory for both trivia and related stimuli
54
Why might faces shown after high-curiosity trivia questions be better remembered than those shown after low-curiosity questions?
A. The hippocampus temporarily shuts down during low-curiosity states
B. Dopaminergic and glutamatergic signals from VTA and NAc enhance encoding of information presented near the time of curiosity
C. Faces are processed in the same brain area as trivia questions
D. Curiosity reduces cognitive load, improving memory for unrelated information
B. Dopaminergic and glutamatergic signals from VTA and NAc enhance encoding of information presented near the time of curiosity
55
Which pathway explains how intrinsic motivation, such as curiosity, enhances memory formation at the neural level?
A. VTA suppresses the hippocampus to reduce interference
B. NAc sends dopamine to the amygdala, which stores facts
C. VTA and NAc activate the hippocampus through dopamine and glutamate, increasing plasticity
D. Hippocampus sends motivation signals back to the VTA for memory optimization
C. VTA and NAc activate the hippocampus through dopamine and glutamate, increasing plasticity
56
In an fMRI study, participants were promised either a high or low monetary reward for remembering specific scene images. What was the main behavioral outcome of this manipulation?
A. Participants remembered low-reward scenes better due to lower pressure.
B. Reward level had no significant effect on memory.
C. Recognition accuracy was higher for high-reward scenes than low-reward scenes.
D. Participants performed worse overall due to the stress of potential reward.
C. Recognition accuracy was higher for high-reward scenes than low-reward scenes.
57
What role does the reward cue shown before the scene likely play in enhancing memory for high-reward scenes?
A. It distracts participants and decreases encoding efficiency.
B. It engages brain systems involved in reward and attention, boosting motivation before encoding.
C. It has no effect because it’s unrelated to the scene itself.
D. It prevents participants from encoding low-reward scenes effectively
B. It engages brain systems involved in reward and attention, boosting motivation before encoding.
58
What neural mechanism is most likely involved in the improved memory for high-reward scenes observed 24 hours later?
A. Dopamine release from reward-related areas enhances memory consolidation in the hippocampus.
B. Amygdala suppression reduces emotional interference, improving memory.
C. Serotonin release from the brainstem directly stores visual memories.
D. Cortisol increase from the cue enhances prefrontal attention to irrelevant stimuli
A. Dopamine release from reward-related areas enhances memory consolidation in the hippocampus
59
A researcher finds that both highly curious students (intrinsically motivated) and students promised a reward (extrinsically motivated) show similar improvements in memory performance. What is the most likely explanation for this finding at the neural level?
A. Only extrinsic motivation activates brain areas involved in memory.
B. Intrinsic and extrinsic motivation rely on separate neural systems.
C. Both types of motivation engage overlapping brain systems, including dopaminergic circuits.
D. Motivation has no significant effect on memory; the effect is due to attention only
C. Both types of motivation engage overlapping brain systems, including dopaminergic circuits.
60
Which of the following best describes how higher motivation — whether intrinsic or extrinsic — supports long-term memory formation?
A. By decreasing hippocampal activity to avoid overload
B. By increasing dopamine signalling, which enhances synaptic plasticity in memory-related brain regions
C. By engaging visual processing areas only
D. By suppressing attention-related brain areas to reduce distractions
B. By increasing dopamine signalling, which enhances synaptic plasticity in memory-related brain regions
61
In a study, participants had to judge tone pitches while viewing words. This task was designed to:
A. Improve their attention to the words through multisensory input
B. Act as a secondary task to divide attention during word encoding
C. Help participants focus on the words more intentionally
D. Mask the memory test to reduce test anxiety
B. Act as a secondary task to divide attention during word encoding
62
What was the main effect of divided attention on memory performance in this study?
A. DA improved memory for intentionally learned words only
B. DA had no measurable effect on memory
C. DA impaired memory only when participants weren’t told to learn
D. DA impaired memory in both incidental and intentional learning conditions
D. DA impaired memory in both incidental and intentional learning conditions
63
What does this study suggest about the role of attention in memory encoding?
A. Memory encoding is automatic and unaffected by distractions
B. Divided attention weakens encoding, even when we’re trying to remember
C. Attention is only necessary for intentional learning tasks
D. Divided attention improves encoding by increasing arousal
B. Divided attention weakens encoding, even when we’re trying to remember
64
Why might the researchers have included both an incidental and intentional learning group in the study?
A. To compare how motivation alone affects memory
B. To see whether attention has a different effect depending on whether people expect to be tested
C. To encourage participants to guess the purpose of the study
D. To determine whether tone judgment enhances learning under pressure
B. To see whether attention has a different effect depending on whether people expect to be tested
65
What is one reason divided attention impairs memory encoding at the neural level?
A. It enhances activity in the hippocampus, causing interference.
B. It activates the visual cortex instead of the memory systems.
C. It reduces activity in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, weakening support for the hippocampus.
D. It increases dopamine too much, overwhelming the memory system
C. It reduces activity in the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex, weakening support for the hippocampus.
66
How does the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex support memory persistence?
A. By generating emotional responses to content
B. By regulating hippocampal activity and enhancing encoding
C. By shutting down during high attention tasks
D. By retrieving older memories rather than encoding new ones
B. By regulating hippocampal activity and enhancing encoding
67
A student is studying while checking notifications on their phone. Based on brain research, how might this affect their memory retention?
A. It will improve memory due to multitasking benefits.
B. It may reduce vlPFC activity, leading to poorer encoding in the hippocampus.
C. It enhances emotional encoding and helps retain the material.
D. It doesn't affect memory as long as the material is interesting
B. It may reduce vlPFC activity, leading to poorer encoding in the hippocampus.
68
A teacher wants to help students retain new vocabulary words. Based on Müller & Pilzecker’s theory, which of the following would likely enhance memory consolidation?
A. Immediately starting a new lesson after introducing the vocabulary
B. Giving students a break to silently think about the new words
C. Distracting students with a fun unrelated activity after the vocabulary lesson
D. Encouraging students to forget the words after the lesson to avoid confusion
B. Giving students a break to silently think about the new words
69
A researcher asks participants to memorize a list of nonsense syllables, then immediately presents them with a new, unrelated list. According to Müller & Pilzecker, what is the most likely outcome?
A. Memory for the first list will improve due to priming
B. Memory for the second list will improve at the cost of the first
C. Memory for the first list will be impaired due to disruption of perseveration
D. Both lists will be equally remembered due to recency effects
C. Memory for the first list will be impaired due to disruption of perseveration
70
In a modern application of the perseveration-consolidation theory, what strategy might a language app use to maximize long-term memory of new words?
A. Introduce new words and immediately switch to grammar rules
B. Present new words and then prompt users to repeat or review them over time
C. Mix vocabulary from multiple languages in the same session
D. Provide all vocabulary at once without repetition
B. Present new words and then prompt users to repeat or review them over time
71
A student studies a list of vocabulary words and then takes a nap. According to the current consolidation dogma, what effect will the nap most likely have on the student's memory?
A. It will erase the memory due to inactivity
B. It will interfere with memory due to lack of attention
C. It will enhance memory by supporting consolidation
D. It will make memory retrieval more difficult
C. It will enhance memory by supporting consolidation
72
A neuroscientist administers a drug that disrupts neural activity immediately after a subject learns a word list. Based on consolidation theory, what is the expected outcome?
A. Memory for the word list will improve due to increased focus
B. Memory will remain unaffected because learning already occurred
C. Memory for the word list will be impaired due to disrupted consolidation
D. The word list will be replaced with new memories
C. Memory for the word list will be impaired due to disrupted consolidation
73
Which of the following best demonstrates Ribot’s Law of Regression in memory?
A. You remember yesterday’s lunch better than your first day of college
B. You forget recent events but vividly recall childhood memories
C. You recall a fact only when someone reminds you
D. You form a new memory while forgetting an old one
B. You forget recent events but vividly recall childhood memories
74
A teacher notices students forget newly taught material if immediately engaged in unrelated activities. How does this support the Perseveration-Consolidation Hypothesis?
A. It shows students need more repetition
B. It suggests students didn’t try hard enough
C. It confirms that post-learning rehearsal (perseveration) aids consolidation
D. It proves that unrelated activities improve memory
C. It confirms that post-learning rehearsal (perseveration) aids consolidation
75
Which of the following best represents the idea that consolidation is a transient and unidirectional process?
A. You can update memories any time after learning
B. Once a memory is consolidated, it cannot be disrupted by later events
C. Consolidation can occur backward and forward in time
D. A memory can be unlearned if rehearsed incorrectly
B. Once a memory is consolidated, it cannot be disrupted by later events
76
A student studies for an exam in the evening. Based on Jenkins & Dallenbach’s findings, which of the following strategies would most likely help them remember the material better?
A. Studying and then staying up late watching TV
B. Studying and then immediately going to sleep
C. Studying in the morning and engaging in multiple tasks throughout the day
D. Studying while multitasking with social media
B. Studying and then immediately going to sleep
77
Why did participants who stayed awake after learning recall fewer syllables compared to those who slept?
A. Their motivation to recall declined
B. Being awake led to more interference from daily activities
C. They were exposed to more nonsense syllables later
D. Sleep causes the brain to forget less important material
B. Being awake led to more interference from daily activities
78
What modern educational practice is most supported by Jenkins & Dallenbach’s findings?
A. Cramming all night before a test
B. Taking short naps immediately after studying
C. Doing physical exercise right after studying
D. Avoiding sleep to keep information fresh in mind
B. Taking short naps immediately after studying
79
After learning two different sequences, a participant takes a nap. They had been told they would receive a reward for remembering only one of the sequences. Based on the findings in the image, which of the following outcomes is most likely?
A) Both sequences are remembered equally well.
B) The rewarded sequence is remembered better than the unrewarded one.
C) The unrewarded sequence is remembered better due to surprise.
D) Sleep has no effect on memory consolidation.
B) The rewarded sequence is remembered better than the unrewarded one.
80
Which of the following best describes the concept of “sleep-dependent triage” based on the slide?
A) Sleep improves all memories equally.
B) Sleep randomly strengthens and weakens different memories.
C) Sleep selectively enhances important memories and discards less important ones.
D) Sleep suppresses emotional memories while enhancing neutral ones
C) Sleep selectively enhances important memories and discards less important ones.
81
If a study finds that participants who remained awake after training did not show memory improvement, what does this suggest about the role of sleep?
A) Sleep interferes with memory consolidation.
B) Wakefulness is equally beneficial for memory as sleep.
C) Sleep is necessary for selective memory enhancement.
D) Reward anticipation plays no role in memory formation
C) Sleep is necessary for selective memory enhancement.
82
After learning a new maze, a rat's hippocampal neurons show increased co-activation. If researchers observe these same neurons firing together during the rat’s slow-wave sleep, what does this most likely indicate?
A) The rat is dreaming about the maze.
B) The neural activity is random and unrelated to learning.
C) The brain is actively consolidating the spatial memory through sleep-dependent replay.
D) The rat has forgotten the maze layout
C) The brain is actively consolidating the spatial memory through sleep-dependent replay.
83
If a drug blocks slow-wave sleep after spatial learning in rats, which of the following outcomes is most likely?
A) Rats will perform better in the maze due to longer waking hours.
B) Rats will consolidate the memory just as well during REM sleep.
C) The reactivation of hippocampal neurons will not occur, impairing memory consolidation.
D) The rat will still show replay during waking rest
C) The reactivation of hippocampal neurons will not occur, impairing memory consolidation.
84
Which of the following best describes the relationship between neuron co-activation during learning and memory consolidation during sleep?
A) Only neurons unrelated to the task show reactivation.
B) The neurons that fire together during learning are suppressed during sleep.
C) Neurons that co-activate during learning are more likely to be reactivated during slow-wave sleep, promoting memory consolidation.
D) Neurons randomly reactivate during sleep without any pattern related to learning
C) Neurons that co-activate during learning are more likely to be reactivated during slow-wave sleep, promoting memory consolidation.
85
A researcher wants to enhance spatial memory in rats. Based on the sleep-dependent replay phenomenon, which of the following strategies would be most effective?
A) Keeping rats awake longer after training.
B) Increasing the duration or quality of slow-wave sleep after training.
C) Stimulating unrelated neurons during sleep.
D) Reducing hippocampal activity during learning
B) Increasing the duration or quality of slow-wave sleep after training.
86
A student has 4 hours to study for an exam. Which of the following strategies is most likely to improve long-term memory retention?
A) Studying all 4 hours in one sitting the night before the exam.
B) Spacing the 4 hours over multiple days with short, repeated sessions.
C) Cramming for 4 hours while multitasking with music and social media.
D) Reading the material once and skipping any testing
B) Spacing the 4 hours over multiple days with short, repeated sessions.
87
A teacher is deciding between giving students multiple restudy opportunities or frequent low-stakes quizzes with feedback. Based on research, what should the teacher choose to improve memory retention?
A) Use only restudy sessions, as feedback is distracting.
B) Use frequent retrieval tests with feedback.
C) Avoid quizzes because they cause test anxiety.
D) Use multiple-choice quizzes only.
B) Use frequent retrieval tests with feedback.
88
Which of the following learning methods would likely result in the strongest memory retention?
A) Reading a textbook chapter twice.
B) Highlighting key points in the textbook.
C) Taking a free recall quiz and reviewing feedback.
D) Listening to a podcast while reviewing flashcards
C) Taking a free recall quiz and reviewing feedback.
89
A learner wants to increase motivation while studying for a new topic. Which of the following strategies aligns best with the recommendations?
A) Skim the material without reflecting.
B) Ask yourself what you're curious about before reading.
C) Memorize facts without trying to understand them.
D) Study in a noisy environment to stay alert
B) Ask yourself what you're curious about before reading.
90
A student plans to study vocabulary and take a free recall test right before going to sleep. Why might this strategy be beneficial?
A) Sleep prevents forgetting due to passive exposure.
B) Memory is strongest only at night.
C) Sleep helps consolidate information retrieved right before bed
D) Recall tests weaken memory traces.
C) Sleep helps consolidate information retrieved right before bed
91
In Twitmyer’s experiment, which of the following correctly identifies the conditioned stimulus (CS) and the conditioned response (CR)?
A) CS: Tendon strike; CR: Knee reflex
B) CS: Bell sound; CR: Knee reflex without tendon strike
C) CS: Knee reflex; CR: Bell sound
D) CS: Reflex hammer; CR: Sound of bell
B) CS: Bell sound; CR: Knee reflex without tendon strike
92
A researcher repeatedly rings a bell (CS) without presenting food (US) to a dog that previously salivated (CR) to the bell. Over time, the dog stops salivating at the sound. What principle does this illustrate?
A) Spontaneous recovery
B) Latent inhibition
C) Extinction
D) Backward conditioning
C) Extinction
93
In a conditioning experiment, a puff of air is blown into a subject’s eye (US), and a tone (CS) is played after the puff. The subject shows very weak or no conditioned blinking. Why?
A) The timing violates the principle of classical conditioning.
B) The subject has developed extinction.
C) The stimulus is too weak to cause learning.
D) The subject is habituated to the tone
A) The timing violates the principle of classical conditioning.
94
Before pairing a light with a puff of air (US), a researcher flashes the light alone several times. Later, the light fails to elicit a conditioned blink. What principle explains this?
A) Blocking
B) Latent inhibition
C) Extinction
D) Spontaneous recovery
B) Latent inhibition
95
An advertising company repeatedly shows viewers a new logo in various contexts without providing specific product information. Over time, people report liking the logo more. Which principle explains this effect?
A) Classical conditioning
B) Reinforcement learning
C) Mere-exposure effect
D) Sensory adaptation
C) Mere-exposure effect
96
After participating in the experiment, participant WC was able to show a strong physiological fear response to the colour associated with the horn but could not recall which colour was paired with the horn. What does this suggest about the brain structures involved in WC's performance?
A) WC has an intact hippocampus but a damaged amygdala
B) WC has damage to both hippocampus and amygdala
C) WC has an intact amygdala but a damaged hippocampus
D) WC has no damage to either brain region
C) WC has an intact amygdala but a damaged hippocampus
97
Participant SM showed no physiological response (no conditioning) but could accurately remember which colour was paired with the horn. What does this suggest about SM's brain function?
A) SM has damage to the hippocampus but an intact amygdala
B) SM has damage to the amygdala but an intact hippocampus
C) SM has damage to both hippocampus and amygdala
D) SM has no damage to either structure
B) SM has damage to the amygdala but an intact hippocampus
98
If a new participant had damage to the hippocampus only, what pattern of results would you expect them to show in this task?
A) No conditioning response, no episodic memory
B) Good conditioning response, good episodic memory
C) Good conditioning response, poor episodic memory
D) No conditioning response, good episodic memory
C) Good conditioning response, poor episodic memory
99
Which brain structures are primarily implicated based on this experiment in episodic memory and classical fear conditioning, respectively?
A) Amygdala for both; hippocampus not involved
B) Hippocampus for episodic memory; amygdala for conditioning
C) Hippocampus for conditioning; amygdala for episodic memory
D) Both hippocampus and amygdala for both functions
B) Hippocampus for episodic memory; amygdala for conditioning
100
A researcher wants to test whether people show conceptual priming for abstract ideas like “justice” or “freedom.” Which of the following experimental designs would be most appropriate?
A) Show participants highly fragmented images of symbols and ask them to name them quickly
B) Expose participants to words related to justice, then later give them a word completion task
C) Show participants line drawings of objects and test naming speed weeks later
D) Ask participants to memorize definitions of abstract concepts and test recall after a delay
B) Expose participants to words related to justice, then later give them a word completion task
101
Which of the following scenarios BEST illustrates perceptual priming?
A) A student better remembers the meaning of a poem after analyzing its themes
B) A person more quickly recognizes a blurred image they saw weeks ago
C) A participant correctly recalls a list of words they were shown an hour ago
D) A child remembers a story because it had a strong emotional message
B) A person more quickly recognizes a blurred image they saw weeks ago
102
The 17-year follow-up in Mandler's experiment, where participants identified previously seen fragmented drawings more accurately, provides evidence that:
A) Priming only works when people are consciously aware of the stimuli
B) Conceptual priming effects are stronger than perceptual ones
C) Perceptual priming can support long-term implicit memory
D) Episodic memory is necessary for all types of memory retrieval
C) Perceptual priming can support long-term implicit memory
103
A psychologist is designing a memory experiment. If the goal is to maximize performance on an implicit memory test, which type of priming should be used?
A) Conceptual priming, because it supports deeper semantic processing
B) Perceptual priming, because it enhances stimulus recognition without conscious awareness
C) Episodic priming, because it relies on contextual cues
D) No priming, because implicit memory does not benefit from prior exposure
B) Perceptual priming, because it enhances stimulus recognition without conscious awareness
104
In a study, participants are first exposed to the word “wisdom” in a sentence. Later, they are tested either by being asked to recall the word (explicit test) or to complete the word fragment "w__d__m" (implicit test). Based on this design, which of the following is most likely true?
A) The word will be recalled better in the implicit test due to perceptual priming
B) Conceptual priming will lead to better performance in the explicit test than the implicit test
C) Explicit and implicit tests will show equal performance for conceptual priming
D) Conceptual priming has no effect on either test type
B) Conceptual priming will lead to better performance in the explicit test than the implicit test
105
A neuroscientist observes reduced neural activity in the fusiform face area (FFA) when participants are shown a face they had previously seen. This is most likely an example of:
A) Habituation due to emotional desensitization
B) Repetition suppression resulting from perceptual priming
C) Neural fatigue from repeated exposure
D) Conceptual priming increasing semantic activation
B) Repetition suppression resulting from perceptual priming
106
A patient with severe amnesia due to medial temporal lobe damage is unable to recall new events. However, after several sessions, the patient shows improvement in a new mirror-tracing task. What does this suggest?
A) Procedural memory is also impaired in amnesia
B) Procedural learning does not require repetition
C) The patient is using explicit memory to guide the task
D) Procedural memory can remain intact despite amnesia
D) Procedural memory can remain intact despite amnesia
107
Which of the following activities most clearly demonstrates procedural memory?
A) Remembering the date of a friend's birthday
B) Solving a crossword puzzle using general knowledge
C) Typing on a keyboard without looking at the keys
D) Recalling what you had for breakfast this morning
C) Typing on a keyboard without looking at the keys
108
Which brain region is most directly involved in the development of procedural learning, such as mastering a tennis serve?
A) Hippocampus
B) Prefrontal cortex
C) Basal ganglia
D) Amygdala
C) Basal ganglia
109
According to the Law of Regression, which type of memory would be most vulnerable to loss following brain trauma?
A) Well-practiced procedural memory, like riding a bike
B) Childhood memories frequently recalled over a lifetime
C) Recent memories from the past few hours or days
D) Strong emotional memories from early adulthood
C) Recent memories from the past few hours or days
110
A neuroscientist is investigating which brain areas are reactivated when someone remembers a previously seen image. Based on Danker & Anderson (2010), where should the researcher expect to see activity?
A) The amygdala, since it's central to emotional memory
B) The prefrontal cortex, as it's where memories are stored long-term
C) The original sensory regions that processed the image
D) The hippocampus, which permanently stores all sensory memories
C) The original sensory regions that processed the image
111
Which of the following best explains the possible biological basis for the Law of Regression, as mentioned in the notes?
A) Emotional interference with hippocampal function
B) Disruption of nutritional processes affecting recently formed memories
C) Excessive synaptic pruning in early childhood
D) Increased stability of short-term memory over long-term memory
B) Disruption of nutritional processes affecting recently formed memories
112
A student studies new vocabulary words and is immediately distracted by a loud phone call, forgetting everything they just read. According to the synaptic consolidation hypothesis, what likely caused the memory failure?
A) The information was encoded in the wrong sensory cortex
B) The memory underwent reconsolidation too early
C) The synaptic changes had not yet stabilized, making the memory vulnerable
D) The hippocampus stored the words permanently without modification
C) The synaptic changes had not yet stabilized, making the memory vulnerable
113
Which of the following best describes the main goal of synaptic consolidation?
A) To increase short-term memory capacity
B) To improve perceptual priming through repetition
C) To stabilize neural changes so memories can last over time
D) To replace old synaptic connections with new ones
C) To stabilize neural changes so memories can last over time
114
A researcher is testing how sleep affects memory retention. Participants who slept right after learning performed better than those who stayed awake. How can this finding be explained by synaptic consolidation?
A) Sleep promotes the decay of unstable memories, allowing only important ones to remain
B) Sleep suppresses hippocampal activity, preventing forgetting
C) Sleep disrupts consolidation, which protects memories from interference
D) Sleep supports the stabilization of synaptic changes made during learning
D) Sleep supports the stabilization of synaptic changes made during learning
115
A single neuron is found to be active when a person recalls both a childhood birthday and a favorite vacation. This is best explained by:
A) Structural connections being rigid and unchanging
B) The neuron being damaged due to overuse
C) The neuron participating in overlapping cell assemblies
D) Sparse coding limiting the neuron’s functionality
C) The neuron participating in overlapping cell assemblies
116
In a memory model using sparse coding, which of the following is most accurate?
A) Each neuron participates in all types of memory representations
B) A large number of neurons are needed for each memory
C) Only a small, selective group of neurons are used in each memory assembly
D) Memory representations require all available neurons to prevent overlap
C) Only a small, selective group of neurons are used in each memory assembly
117
A patient hears a few notes of a familiar song and immediately recalls the full melody. Which feature of cell assemblies best explains this process?
A) Persistent activity
B) Sparse coding
C) Dynamic completion
D) Flexible structure
C) Dynamic completion
118
What is the functional advantage of the flexible structure in cell assemblies?
A) It prevents changes to memory over time
B) It allows the same neuron to be used in only one assembly
C) It supports learning and memory updating by allowing dynamic reorganization
D) It ensures memories are permanently stored in fixed locations
C) It supports learning and memory updating by allowing dynamic reorganization
119
Which of the following scenarios BEST illustrates persistent activity in a neural assembly?
A) A visual stimulus is forgotten immediately after it disappears
B) Neurons continue to fire for several seconds after the stimulus is gone
C) The same neurons are recruited for all types of stimuli
D) A neuron stops firing the moment it detects a stimulus
B) Neurons continue to fire for several seconds after the stimulus is gone
120
A student consistently studies vocabulary words while listening to the same instrumental playlist. Over time, hearing the playlist alone triggers recall of the words. This is an example of:
A) Recurrent inhibition
B) Sparse coding
C) Associative learning, as described by Hebb’s rule
D) Repetition suppression due to overload
C) Associative learning, as described by Hebb’s rule
121
Which of the following best reflects the phrase “neurons that fire together, wire together”?
A) Neurons that are physically close tend to have similar functions
B) Random neural firing eventually leads to learning
C) Repeated co-activation strengthens the synaptic connection between neurons
D) Only strong stimuli can lead to changes in synaptic strength
C) Repeated co-activation strengthens the synaptic connection between neurons
122
How do structural changes in synapses within a cell assembly contribute to long-term memory, according to Hebbian theory?
A) They reduce the number of neurons required for a memory
B) They allow the pattern of activity to be reactivated even without external input
C) They shift memory storage from the hippocampus to the spinal cord
D) They suppress unrelated patterns to prevent interference
B) They allow the pattern of activity to be reactivated even without external input
123
A person suffers damage to their hippocampus and is unable to recall events from the past week, but can remember events from several years ago. This pattern of memory loss most directly supports which concept?
A) Synaptic consolidation
B) Perceptual priming
C) Systems consolidation
D) Sparse coding
C) Systems consolidation
124
During a brain imaging study, a participant recalls a childhood memory. The scan shows strong activity in the frontal cortex but minimal activity in the hippocampus. What does this likely indicate?
A) The memory is false and being constructed on the spot
B) The memory has undergone systems consolidation
C) The hippocampus has been permanently damaged
D) The participant is experiencing a procedural memory
B) The memory has undergone systems consolidation
125
Which of the following best describes the timeline and brain shift involved in systems consolidation?
A) Memories start in the prefrontal cortex and shift to the hippocampus over time
B) Memories immediately become independent of the hippocampus once encoded
C) Memories are initially hippocampus-dependent but gradually shift to neocortical areas
D) Memories are stored in the cerebellum first, then transferred to the amygdala
C) Memories are initially hippocampus-dependent but gradually shift to neocortical areas
126
In a fear conditioning study, rats receive hippocampal lesions 1 day after learning. What outcome is most likely?
A) They will show a normal fear response, as the memory is already consolidated
B) They will lose the fear memory entirely
C) They will display partial memory loss, depending on the stimulus intensity
D) Their memory will gradually improve over time
B) They will lose the fear memory entirely
127
Which finding supports the idea of a temporal gradient in hippocampal amnesia?
A) Hippocampal damage always leads to loss of all fear memories
B) Lesions made 28 days after learning cause complete memory loss
C) Recent memories are more vulnerable to hippocampal damage than remote ones
D) Rats without hippocampal lesions forget contextual fear memory quickly
C) Recent memories are more vulnerable to hippocampal damage than remote ones
128
Why do rats with hippocampal lesions applied 28 days after conditioning still show a fear response?
A) The lesions enhanced memory retrieval
B) The memory became dependent on cortical areas over time
C) The rats never learned the fear response
D) The hippocampus regenerated after the lesion
B) The memory became dependent on cortical areas over time
129
A neuroscientist observes that when participants recall a memory learned months ago, there is reduced hippocampal activity but increased activity in neocortical areas. This pattern is best explained by:
A) Synaptic pruning due to lack of rehearsal
B) Retrieval failure caused by aging
C) Systems consolidation transferring memory storage to the cortex
D) Loss of episodic detail from semantic interference
C) Systems consolidation transferring memory storage to the cortex
130
A patient has damage to the hippocampus but intact neocortical areas. According to the Standard Model of Systems Consolidation, what would you predict about their ability to recall remote (older) memories?
A. Remote memories will be lost because the hippocampus is always required.
B. Remote memories will be preserved because they are stored in the neocortex.
C. Remote memories will become distorted but retrievable.
D. Remote memories will depend on the prefrontal cortex suppressing the hippocampus
B. Remote memories will be preserved because they are stored in the neocortex.
131
If the Extended Standard Model is correct, which of the following interventions would most likely reduce dependence on the hippocampus for memory retrieval?
A. Enhancing prefrontal cortex maturation.
B. Damaging cortical modules.
C. Stimulating the hippocampus repeatedly.
D. Inhibiting the neocortex
A. Enhancing prefrontal cortex maturation.
132
A researcher finds that when recalling very old autobiographical memories, activity in the hippocampus remains high even decades later. Which model is most consistent with this finding?
A. Standard Model
B. Extended Standard Model
C. Multiple-Trace Model
D. None of the above
C. Multiple-Trace Model
133
According to the Multiple-Trace Model, why do hippocampal representations of memory become “much bigger” with repeated recall?
A. The hippocampus transfers memories to the cortex and then shrinks.
B. Each retrieval creates a new hippocampal trace, strengthening its role in remote memories.
C. The hippocampus is only involved in semantic, not episodic, memories.
D. Prefrontal cortex suppresses hippocampal activity during recall.
B. Each retrieval creates a new hippocampal trace, strengthening its role in remote memories.
134
Which of the following clinical observations would best challenge the Standard Model and support the Multiple-Trace Model?
A. Patients with hippocampal damage cannot form new memories.
B. Patients with hippocampal damage can recall remote but not recent memories.
C. Patients with hippocampal damage lose both recent and remote episodic memories.
D. Patients with prefrontal damage lose the ability to suppress hippocampal activation.
C. Patients with hippocampal damage lose both recent and remote episodic memories.
Intro To Human Memory
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