L06

Question 1

During a psychological experiment, participants are asked to listen to a list of six digits and repeat them immediately after hearing them. Which cognitive function is this task primarily assessing?

A. Long-term memory
B. Short-term memory
C. Working memory
D. Procedural memory

Answer 1

B. Short-term memory

Question 2

A student is asked to mentally solve the equation (8 × 2) + (3 × 5) without writing anything down. Which cognitive system is primarily engaged in this task?

A. Sensory memory
B. Short-term memory
C. Working memory
D. Episodic memory

Answer 2

C. Working memory

Question 3

During a psychological experiment, participants are asked to listen to a list of six digits and repeat them immediately after hearing them. Which cognitive function is this task primarily assessing?

A. Long-term memory
B. Short-term memory
C. Working memory
D. Procedural memory

Answer 3

B. Short-term memory

Question 4

A student is asked to mentally solve the equation (8 × 2) + (3 × 5) without writing anything down. Which cognitive system is primarily engaged in this task?

A. Sensory memory
B. Short-term memory
C. Working memory
D. Episodic memory

Answer 4

C. Working memory

Question 5

A researcher gives participants a list of 12 random digits to remember. One group is told to memorize them as a single long string, while another group is encouraged to group the digits into meaningful sets (e.g., “514-283-7694”). Which of the following best explains why the second group performs better?

A. They use more of their long-term memory capacity
B. Chunking reduces the total number of items held in short-term memory
C. The second group rehearses the digits more times
D. Chunking increases the duration of sensory memory

Answer 5

B. Chunking reduces the total number of items held in short-term memory

Question 6

While trying to memorize a shopping list, Maria groups items into categories — fruits (apples, oranges, bananas), dairy (milk, cheese), and grains (bread, rice). This strategy demonstrates which concept from Miller’s work?

A. Serial position effect
B. Interference theory
C. Chunking
D. Maintenance rehearsal

Answer 6

C. Chunking

Question 7

A phone number is easier to recall when written as “604-555-2389” instead of “6045552389.” Which of the following cognitive principles best explains this effect?

A. The information is transferred to long-term memory
B. Prosody helps segment information into manageable units
C. Visual imagery enhances working memory
D. Repetition increases STM capacity

Answer 7

B. Prosody helps segment information into manageable units

Question 8

A participant is shown a sequence of letters—C, V, D, P, G, T—and later mistakenly recalls “B” instead of “P.” What does this error suggest about the way information is stored in short-term memory?

A. STM primarily relies on visual coding
B. STM primarily relies on semantic coding
C. STM primarily relies on acoustic (phonological) coding
D. STM relies equally on all types of codes

Answer 8

C. STM primarily relies on acoustic (phonological) coding

Question 9

In an experiment, participants are asked to recall letters shown visually on a screen. Even though the letters were not spoken, participants still confuse “T” and “D.” What does this finding indicate?

A. STM converts visually presented information into an auditory code
B. STM is entirely visual
C. STM errors only occur when sound is involved
D. STM is unrelated to working memory processes

Answer 9

A. STM converts visually presented information into an auditory code

Question 10

A student studying for a spelling test notices that she keeps mixing up the letters “M” and “N” when rehearsing them silently. This confusion supports which theory of short-term memory?

A. STM uses a phonological code that is sound-based
B. STM stores each letter as a unique visual image
C. STM primarily depends on long-term semantic associations
D. STM errors result mainly from motor articulation problems

Answer 10

A. STM uses a phonological code that is sound-based

Question 11

A psychologist designs an experiment in which participants hear a list of words and must recall them after a short delay. The researcher finds that words that sound similar are more difficult to recall accurately. What major theoretical model was inspired by such findings?

A. Levels-of-processing model
B. Dual coding model
C. Modal model of memory
D. Connectionist model

Answer 11

C. Modal model of memory

Question 12

During a memory task, participants must recall a list of words immediately after hearing them. When asked to repeat the words silently to themselves, their recall improves. This improvement is best explained by which part of the phonological loop?

A. The visuospatial sketchpad
B. The articulatory rehearsal process
C. The central executive
D. The episodic buffer

Answer 12

B. The articulatory rehearsal process

Question 13

A researcher finds that people who speak faster can remember slightly longer word lists than those who speak more slowly. According to the phonological loop model, what explains this difference?

A. Faster speakers have a larger visual memory span
B. Speed of rehearsal determines how many items can be refreshed before they decay
C. Word length has no relationship with memory span
D. Faster speech reduces interference from long-term memory

Answer 13

B. Speed of rehearsal determines how many items can be refreshed before they decay

Question 14

If a person is asked to remember a list of words while simultaneously repeating the word “the” over and over again, their verbal recall performance drops sharply. This effect occurs because:

A. Repeating “the” overloads the visuospatial sketchpad
B. Repetition of “the” blocks the articulatory rehearsal process
C. Saying “the” interferes with semantic encoding in long-term memory
D. The phonological store becomes permanently full

Answer 14

B. Repetition of “the” blocks the articulatory rehearsal process

Question 15

A participant can recall up to seven spoken digits, but when required to silently read and remember digits instead, their recall drops to five. Which conclusion best fits this finding?

A. The phonological loop is more efficient for auditory input than for visual input
B. The visuospatial sketchpad interferes with the phonological loop
C. The central executive improves performance with auditory information
D. The episodic buffer stores more visual than auditory information

Answer 15

A. The phonological loop is more efficient for auditory input than for visual input

Question 16

During a short-term memory experiment, participants are given two lists to remember:
List A: “cat, hat, bat, mat, rat”
List B: “dog, pen, shoe, car, tree”
Participants recall far fewer words from List A than List B. What principle best explains this result?

A. Semantic interference effect
B. Phonological similarity effect
C. Word length effect
D. Articulatory suppression effect

Answer 16

B. Phonological similarity effect

Question 17

A researcher presents participants with two sets of five words. In one set, the words are semantically related (“cat, dog, lion, tiger, bear”), and in the other, they are phonologically similar (“man, can, pan, fan, ran”). Which result would Baddeley’s findings predict?

A. Participants recall more semantically related words
B. Participants recall more phonologically similar words
C. Both lists are recalled equally well
D. Semantic similarity interferes more with recall than sound similarity

Answer 17

A. Participants recall more semantically related words

Question 18

A participant struggles to recall a list of words that sound alike but has no problem recalling a list of words that share similar meanings. This finding supports which of the following claims about the phonological loop?

A. The loop stores information based on visual characteristics
B. Subvocal rehearsal refreshes semantic information
C. The loop uses an acoustic code, making sound-based interference most disruptive
D. The loop stores items as long-term semantic chunks

Answer 18

C. The loop uses an acoustic code, making sound-based interference most disruptive

Question 19

In an experiment, participants hear two lists: one of rhyming words and one of non-rhyming words. Their recall is significantly worse for the rhyming list. According to Baddeley, when in the memory process does this interference occur?

A. During encoding, due to limited attention
B. During storage, because of semantic overlap
C. During retrieval, when similar-sounding items are confused
D. During rehearsal, due to slowed articulation

Answer 19

C. During retrieval, when similar-sounding items are confused

Question 20

A group of participants is asked to remember two different lists of five words each:
List A: “happy, joyful, glad, cheerful, pleased”
List B: “chair, window, apple, river, book”
Surprisingly, both groups recall about the same number of words correctly. What does this result suggest about how short-term memory encodes information?

A. STM depends mainly on the meaning of words for recall
B. STM depends mainly on the sound of words, not their meaning
C. STM stores items using visual imagery rather than sound or meaning
D. STM capacity increases when words share similar meanings

Answer 20

B. STM depends mainly on the sound of words, not their meaning

Question 21

During an experiment, participants view a list of easily nameable pictures (e.g., a cat, a ball, a tree) and must remember them. One group repeats the word “the” continuously while viewing the images, while the other group remains silent. The group repeating “the” recalls fewer items. What caused this decline in memory?

A. Repeating “the” blocked access to long-term memory
B. Articulatory suppression prevented the conversion of visual items into phonological form
C. Repetition reduced attention to visual information
D. Phonological similarity increased interference between items

Answer 21

B. Articulatory suppression prevented the conversion of visual items into phonological form

Question 22

In a memory study, participants are asked to memorize visually presented words while saying “the, the, the…” aloud. Researchers find that the phonological similarity effect disappears under this condition. What does this result suggest?

A. Semantic processing replaces phonological processing
B. The articulatory rehearsal process becomes more efficient
C. Phonological encoding is blocked when subvocal articulation is prevented
D. Visual memory becomes dominant in all conditions

Answer 22

C. Phonological encoding is blocked when subvocal articulation is prevented

Question 23

A researcher asks participants to repeat “la-la-la” during a digit span test. Their recall drops significantly compared to when they stay silent. Which component of the working memory model is being disrupted?

A. The visuospatial sketchpad
B. The central executive
C. The phonological loop
D. The episodic buffer

Answer 23

C. The phonological loop

Question 24

A participant is shown a list of words and begins repeating “the” immediately after the list is shown. Their recall performance drops compared to when they do not repeat anything. What does this finding tell us about the timing of articulatory suppression?

A. Articulatory suppression only affects memory before item presentation
B. Articulatory suppression after presentation prevents rehearsal and causes stored items to decay
C. Repeating a word after presentation improves recall through rehearsal
D. Timing has no effect on articulatory suppression outcomes

Answer 24

B. Articulatory suppression after presentation prevents rehearsal and causes stored items to decay

Question 25

Participants are asked to memorize two different lists of words: List A: “Dog, book, car, shoe, fish” List B: “University, refrigerator, alligator, anniversary, helicopter” They recall more words from List A than List B. Which explanation best fits this result? A. Longer words are harder to visualize B. Longer words decay from the phonological loop before they can be rehearsed again C. Shorter words have stronger semantic associations D. Long words cause interference from the visuospatial sketchpad

Answer 25

B. Longer words decay from the phonological loop before they can be rehearsed again

Question 26

A student performs better on a digit span test when the digits are read quickly than when they are read slowly. What does this demonstrate about the phonological loop? A. Recall depends on total study time rather than articulation speed B. Faster rehearsal allows more items to be maintained before they decay C. Slow presentation allows deeper semantic processing D. The number of digits recalled depends on meaning, not timing

Answer 26

B. Faster rehearsal allows more items to be maintained before they decay

Question 27

Two groups are tested on a memory span task. One group repeats short one-syllable words, while the other repeats long multisyllabic words. If both groups rehearse for the same duration, which group is expected to recall more words, and why? A. The long-word group, because longer words are more distinctive B. The short-word group, because shorter articulation time allows more items to be refreshed C. Both groups, because rehearsal duration is constant D. The long-word group, because semantic complexity aids recall

Answer 27

B. The short-word group, because shorter articulation time allows more items to be refreshed

Question 28

Researchers debate whether the word-length effect is caused by decay or by interference. Which of the following examples would support the interference explanation rather than decay? A. Memory decreases as words become longer because they fade before being rehearsed B. Memory decreases because long words compete for space and disrupt one another in the loop C. Memory improves when rehearsal time increases D. Memory span stays constant regardless of word length

Answer 28

B. Memory decreases because long words compete for space and disrupt one another in the loop

Question 29

A participant remembers all the words from a list but mixes up their order when recalling them. This difficulty best highlights which limitation of the original phonological loop model? A. It cannot explain the decay of items over time B. It does not include a mechanism for storing or maintaining serial order C. It cannot encode phonological information accurately D. It does not differentiate between visual and auditory inputs

Answer 29

B. It does not include a mechanism for storing or maintaining serial order

Question 30

When recalling a list like “B, D, G, T,” a participant frequently confuses the middle items, reporting “B, G, D, T.” According to newer models of verbal STM, what might this pattern suggest? A. Serial order information is maintained by a separate process from phonological storage B. Item similarity does not affect retrieval order C. Decay of early items explains all ordering errors D. Serial order is irrelevant for short-term memory performance

Answer 30

A. Serial order information is maintained by a separate process from phonological storage

Question 31

A researcher proposes that during rehearsal, each item in memory is retrieved from storage and then reinserted to refresh its activation. What purpose does this process serve? A. It reorganizes items semantically B. It maintains serial order while preventing decay C. It strengthens long-term memory encoding D. It converts phonological codes into visual ones

Answer 31

B. It maintains serial order while preventing decay

Question 32

Two participants are given the same list of words. One list contains phonologically similar words (e.g., “man, can, pan, fan”), while the other contains dissimilar words. The first participant makes more order errors than item omissions. What does this finding imply? A. Phonological similarity mainly disrupts serial order retrieval B. Similar-sounding words decay more quickly C. Semantic similarity interferes more than sound D. Long words are harder to rehearse than short words

Answer 32

A. Phonological similarity mainly disrupts serial order retrieval

Question 33

Despite multiple proposed models of serial order representation in STM, researchers have not reached full agreement on how order is maintained. What does this ongoing debate reveal about our understanding of the phonological loop? A. The phonological loop is fully understood but poorly tested experimentally B. There is consensus that serial order is irrelevant to short-term memory C. The current models are incomplete and may require additional mechanisms beyond phonological storage D. Short-term memory does not rely on the phonological loop at all

Answer 33

C. The current models are incomplete and may require additional mechanisms beyond phonological storage

Question 34

A researcher shows participants the word “CAT” in red font, then later presents the same word in black font. Participants recognize the word easily, even though the color changed. According to the Feature Model, which type of features allowed them to recognize it? A. Modality features B. Semantic (meaning) features C. Contextual features D. Episodic features

Answer 34

B. Semantic (meaning) features

Question 35

Two words, “CAT” and “CAP,” are stored in memory. Later, recall for “CAT” is poor because its features overlap with those of “CAP.” According to the Feature Model, what caused this forgetting? A. Decay of information over time B. Interference from overlapping features C. Poor encoding of modality information D. Lack of rehearsal in the phonological loop

Answer 35

B. Interference from overlapping features

Question 36

A participant recalls the word “table” after reading it and hearing it spoken aloud earlier. This supports which key assumption of the Feature Model? A. STM and LTM are distinct systems with separate stores B. Modality-specific features prevent cross-modal recognition C. STM and LTM share a single feature-based memory system D. Only verbal information can be integrated across modalities

Answer 36

C. STM and LTM share a single feature-based memory system

Question 37

In an experiment, a participant studies two lists: List 1: “dog, cat, horse” List 2: “dog, cow, sheep” Recall for List 1 decreases after studying List 2. According to the Feature Model, why does this occur? A. Items from List 1 decayed due to time delay B. Shared semantic features caused interference between the lists C. The phonological loop failed to maintain serial order D. Modality features were not encoded strongly enough

Answer 37

B. Shared semantic features caused interference between the lists

Question 38

A researcher tests memory using lists that mix short and long words. According to the Feature Model, the word-length effect should appear — but in reality, it disappears. What does this result suggest about the model? A. The Feature Model accurately accounts for all rehearsal-based effects B. The Feature Model cannot fully explain how word length interacts with memory processes C. The Feature Model overemphasizes the role of semantic interference D. The Feature Model shows that memory decay is the main cause of forgetting

Answer 38

B. The Feature Model cannot fully explain how word length interacts with memory processes

Question 39

In an experiment, irrelevant background sounds are played after participants have already seen a list of words, and their recall performance drops. The Feature Model cannot account for this finding because it assumes: A. Only long-term memory is affected by interference B. Interference can occur only during encoding, not after list presentation C. Decay, not interference, is the main cause of forgetting D. Phonological similarity cannot occur across modalities

Answer 39

B. Interference can occur only during encoding, not after list presentation

Question 40

A participant is asked to recall a list of words presented 10 seconds apart. They can easily remember the first and last items, but confuse some of the middle ones. According to the SIMPLE model, why does this happen? A. Items in the middle have decayed more rapidly than others B. Items presented close together in time interfere with one another C. Early items are stored in a different memory system D. Later items are encoded more semantically

Answer 40

B. Items presented close together in time interfere with one another

Question 41

According to the SIMPLE model, why might it be harder to remember events that happened close together, like two phone calls received minutes apart, compared to events separated by several hours? A. Temporal similarity causes interference between the two memories B. The brain prioritizes more recent information for decay C. Semantic similarity determines how easily events are recalled D. Remote memories are stored in a different brain area

Answer 41

A. Temporal similarity causes interference between the two memories

Question 42

The SIMPLE model proposes that short-term and long-term memory retrieval operate according to the same basic principles. What does this imply about how memory is organized? A. STM and LTM rely on completely separate mechanisms B. Memory retrieval is scale-invariant, functioning similarly across different time spans C. Long-term memory requires a unique retrieval process D. STM uses decay while LTM uses interference

Answer 42

B. Memory retrieval is scale-invariant, functioning similarly across different time spans

Question 43

Two students learn vocabulary words. Student A studies them all at once, while Student B studies them over several days. According to the SIMPLE model, which student should recall more words accurately, and why? A. Student A, because studying close together strengthens interference B. Student B, because spreading study sessions increases temporal distinctiveness C. Student A, because massed practice improves recall speed D. Both students should recall equally well because time spacing doesn’t matter

Answer 43

B. Student B, because spreading study sessions increases temporal distinctiveness

Question 44

A researcher asks participants to recall a list of words in the exact order they were presented. The SIMPLE model predicts performance less accurately than other models. Why? A. The SIMPLE model assumes order information is maintained by rehearsal loops B. The SIMPLE model does not include a clear mechanism for representing serial order C. The SIMPLE model focuses exclusively on semantic rather than temporal features D. The SIMPLE model only applies to visual, not verbal, information

Answer 44

B. The SIMPLE model does not include a clear mechanism for representing serial order

Question 45

A cognitive psychologist uses the SIMPLE model to simulate recall under divided attention conditions. The simulation fails to match actual human data. What limitation of SIMPLE does this demonstrate? A. It cannot model executive processes such as attention control B. It assumes memory decay rather than interference C. It only applies to visual short-term memory D. It predicts attention improves recall accuracy linearly

Answer 45

A. It cannot model executive processes such as attention control

Question 46

When comparing different memory tasks, SIMPLE accurately predicts performance in free recall but not in serial recall. What does this pattern suggest about the model’s strengths and weaknesses? A. It models the influence of rehearsal order well but ignores decay B. It captures general recall dynamics but struggles with tasks requiring ordered retrieval C. It focuses on visual encoding but not auditory processing D. It is designed primarily for modeling attention switching

Answer 46

B. It captures general recall dynamics but struggles with tasks requiring ordered retrieval

Question 47

The SOB model is designed to explain how the brain maintains the order of items in memory. What is the main feature that allows this model to represent serial order? A. Sequential rehearsal of phonological items B. A fully interconnected neural network that captures item relationships through activation patterns C. A temporal distinctiveness mechanism based on spacing of items D. A decay-based storage system for ordered sequences

Answer 47

B. A fully interconnected neural network that captures item relationships through activation patterns

Question 48

In the SOB model, how is a specific memory retrieved from the network? A. By reactivating the phonological loop B. By refreshing decayed traces through rehearsal C. By using pattern completion, where partial input triggers the full stored pattern D. By recalling items based solely on their temporal distance

Answer 48

C. By using pattern completion, where partial input triggers the full stored pattern

Question 49

The SOB model incorporates Hebbian learning, which is also found in biological neural systems. What does this principle state? A. Neurons that fire together strengthen their connections B. Memory traces decay unless rehearsed frequently C. Serial order depends solely on temporal distinctiveness D. Attention is required to maintain item order in memory

Answer 49

A. Neurons that fire together strengthen their connections

Question 50

The SOB model is inspired by biological neural structures such as the CA3 region of the hippocampus. Why is this region particularly relevant to the model? A. It stores phonological information for short-term recall B. It supports auto-associative networks that encode and retrieve memory sequences C. It controls attention and executive processing in memory tasks D. It maintains spatial memory through motor rehearsal

Answer 50

B. It supports auto-associative networks that encode and retrieve memory sequences

Question 51

In the SOB model, the term “Box” refers to: A. The phonological loop where speech-based information is stored B. A multidimensional space representing all possible network activation states C. A temporal storage buffer for recently learned items D. The neural region in the hippocampus that decays memory traces

Answer 51

B. A multidimensional space representing all possible network activation states

Question 52

When the SOB model describes memory as residing within the curved plane of the box, what does this visualization represent? A. The temporal distance between successive memories B. The network’s set of stable activation patterns that encode stored memories C. The decay of items from short-term storage D. The role of rehearsal in maintaining ordered recall

Answer 52

B. The network’s set of stable activation patterns that encode stored memories

Question 53

In the SOB model, what mechanism primarily allows the system to maintain the serial order of presented items? A. Continuous rehearsal of phonological information B. The context signal that drifts with each new item, serving as a temporal tag C. The decay of older items in the phonological store D. The distinctiveness of visual encoding for each item

Answer 53

B. The context signal that drifts with each new item, serving as a temporal tag

Question 54

According to the SOB model, what mechanism allows serial order to be maintained across items in short-term memory? A. Rehearsal of each item through subvocal articulation B. Contextual drift, where each new item is stored with a slightly updated context signal C. Grouping items into chunks based on meaning D. Distinct rehearsal loops for each presented item

Answer 54

B. Contextual drift, where each new item is stored with a slightly updated context signal

Question 55

In the SOB model, what causes the capacity limit of verbal short-term memory? A. The limited speed of articulatory rehearsal B. The decay of phonological codes over time C. Reduced distinctiveness of contextual tags as more items are added D. The inability of the central executive to maintain focus

Answer 55

C. Reduced distinctiveness of contextual tags as more items are added

Question 56

Two words that share many features (e.g., “CAT” and “CAP”) are harder to remember in order than unrelated words. How does the SOB model explain this? A. Phonological decay occurs faster for similar items B. Feature similarity leads to overlapping neural representations that interfere C. Semantic processing replaces contextual encoding D. Contextual drift resets after each similar-sounding word

Answer 56

B. Feature similarity leads to overlapping neural representations that interfere

Question 57

When a participant recalls earlier items less accurately after more items are added, which SOB concept best explains this phenomenon? A. Contextual drift reduces the distinctiveness of earlier contexts over time B. Long-term memory retrieval interferes with short-term recall C. The phonological loop fails to refresh early items D. The temporal distinctiveness between the first and last items increases

Answer 57

A. Contextual drift reduces the distinctiveness of earlier contexts over time

Question 58

In a free recall task, participants are asked to remember as many items as possible from a long list, in any order. What pattern of recall performance typically emerges? A. Equal recall accuracy across all list positions B. Better recall for items at the beginning and end of the list than the middle C. Superior recall for items only at the middle of the list D. Increasing recall accuracy as list length increases

Answer 58

B. Better recall for items at the beginning and end of the list than the middle

Question 59

Why do participants typically show a primacy effect in free recall tasks? A. Early items receive more rehearsal time and are transferred into long-term memory B. Early items are acoustically distinct and easier to encode C. The first items are forgotten more slowly than later ones D. Attention wanes during later parts of the list presentation

Answer 59

A. Early items receive more rehearsal time and are transferred into long-term memory

Question 60

A researcher presents a 20-item word list. Participants recall more of the last few items than the middle ones. What effect does this illustrate? A. The spacing effect B. The interference effect C. The recency effect D. The chunking effect

Answer 60

C. The recency effect

Question 61

As the list length in a free recall experiment increases, what happens to recall performance? A. Fewer total items are recalled B. The total number of items recalled increases, but the proportion of items recalled decreases C. Both the total and proportional recall rates remain constant D. Participants recall fewer recent items but more middle items

Answer 61

B. The total number of items recalled increases, but the proportion of items recalled decreases

Question 62

In a memory experiment, participants perform better on free recall than serial recall for long lists. Why? A. Free recall allows retrieval in any order, reducing dependence on strict sequence memory B. Serial recall provides more rehearsal time for each item C. Free recall depends only on short-term memory processes D. Serial recall benefits from contextual drift between items

Answer 62

A. Free recall allows retrieval in any order, reducing dependence on strict sequence memory

Question 63

Why are the first few items in a list typically remembered better, according to the combined LTM–STM explanation of the serial position curve? A. They are still active in short-term memory at the time of recall B. They receive more rehearsal, allowing transfer into long-term memory C. They are more visually distinctive than later items D. They are encoded using phonological similarity cues

Answer 63

B. They receive more rehearsal, allowing transfer into long-term memory

Question 64

A researcher has participants perform a 10-second distractor task after list presentation (e.g., repeating “the, the, the”) before recall. What happens to the recency effect, and why? A. It remains strong because recent items are deeply encoded semantically B. It disappears because the delay removes items from short-term memory C. It strengthens because attention shifts back to the last-presented items D. It reverses, making middle items recalled best

Answer 64

B. It disappears because the delay removes items from short-term memory

Question 65

Empirical studies have confirmed the LTM explanation of the primacy effect but have challenged the traditional STM explanation of the recency effect. What does this suggest? A. Recency may reflect retrieval from a long-term memory component, not just STM B. Primacy and recency rely on identical neural mechanisms C. Only visual memory contributes to the serial position curve D. Short-term memory operates independently of long-term storage

Answer 65

A. Recency may reflect retrieval from a long-term memory component, not just STM

Question 66

In a free recall experiment, participants perform a distractor task immediately after the list is presented, and the recency effect disappears. What does this suggest about the nature of the recency effect? A. It relies on short-term memory, which is disrupted by post-list interference B. It depends on semantic processing in long-term memory C. It strengthens when rehearsal is prevented D. It reflects interference between early list items

Answer 66

A. It relies on short-term memory, which is disrupted by post-list interference

Question 67

In another version of the experiment, distractor tasks are presented after every single list item, yet the recency effect remains. Why is this finding problematic for the traditional STM explanation? A. It suggests that recency depends on long-term memory processes rather than STM rehearsal B. It shows that distractor tasks actually strengthen recent memory traces C. It confirms that short-term memory capacity increases with interference D. It proves that only phonological similarity determines recall order

Answer 67

A. It suggests that recency depends on long-term memory processes rather than STM rehearsal

Question 68

In Baddeley & Hitch’s (1977) study of rugby players, players were asked to recall the teams they had played during the season. What was the main finding? A. Players remembered the first teams they played best, showing a strong primacy effect B. Players remembered the most recent games best, showing a long-term recency effect C. Players recalled games from the middle of the season most accurately D. Players’ recall accuracy was unrelated to when games occurred

Answer 68

B. Players remembered the most recent games best, showing a long-term recency effect

Question 69

Baddeley & Hitch found that the number of games played between matches predicted forgetting better than the amount of time passed. What does this suggest about memory decay? A. Forgetting is primarily caused by the passage of time B. Forgetting depends more on interference from similar events than on elapsed time C. Forgetting occurs only when rehearsal is prevented D. Forgetting is unrelated to either time or interference

Answer 69

B. Forgetting depends more on interference from similar events than on elapsed time

Question 70

The finding that rugby players showed a recency effect even when recall occurred long after the games challenges which traditional explanation? A. That recency relies solely on short-term memory processes B. That rehearsal is required for long-term storage C. That forgetting is caused by interference D. That semantic memory influences episodic recall

Answer 70

A. That recency relies solely on short-term memory processes

Question 71

Which of the following best explains why recency effects persist even when rehearsal is prevented? A. The last items remain stored in short-term memory for longer than other items B. Recently presented items are more distinctive and easier to retrieve C. Rehearsal processes strengthen the encoding of recent items D. Participants unconsciously group recent items together during encoding

Answer 71

B. Recently presented items are more distinctive and easier to retrieve

Question 72

According to the SIMPLE model, why are recent memories recalled better than older ones? A. They occupy more storage space in working memory B. They are encoded with stronger semantic associations C. They are more distinct on the compressed temporal scale D. They receive more attention during rehearsal

Answer 72

C. They are more distinct on the compressed temporal scale

Question 73

Why do STM-based explanations fail to fully account for the recency effect? A. They only apply to visual stimuli, not verbal ones B. They assume recency depends entirely on short-term rehearsal C. They ignore the role of semantic encoding in long-term recall D. They predict stronger primacy than recency effects

Answer 73

B. They assume recency depends entirely on short-term rehearsal

Question 74

During reading, a person’s eyes make rapid saccadic movements across the page. Which of the following best describes what happens to visual information during these saccades? A. Continuous visual input is maintained throughout the movement. B. The visual system takes discrete “snapshots” of information during fixations between saccades. C. Visual information is integrated smoothly across saccades, creating a seamless picture. D. Visual perception is suppressed during fixations and only active during saccades.

Answer 74

B. The visual system takes discrete “snapshots” of information during fixations between saccades.

Question 75

During a memory experiment, a participant is briefly shown several colored shapes on a screen. After a short delay, they are asked, “Which shape appeared in the top-left corner?” Which component of visuo-spatial STM is being tested? A. Phonological loop B. Object STM C. Spatial STM D. Central executive

Answer 75

C. Spatial STM

Question 76

In another experiment, a participant views a sequence of abstract figures and is later asked, “Which shape had three sides?” This task primarily assesses which form of visuo-spatial STM? A. Object STM B. Spatial STM C. Episodic buffer D. Iconic memory

Answer 76

A. Object STM

Question 77

A participant studies the positions of dots on a grid for a few seconds. During the retention interval, they are asked to perform a visual search task involving many eye movements. What is the most likely outcome? A. Their recall of the dot positions will improve due to increased attention. B. Their recall of the dot positions will worsen because the spatial framework is disrupted. C. Their recall will remain unchanged because the filler task is nonspatial. D. Their recall will improve because eye movements enhance encoding.

Answer 77

B. Their recall of the dot positions will worsen because the spatial framework is disrupted.

Question 78

A researcher gives participants 30 seconds to remember the locations of symbols on a screen. Some participants perform a verbal counting task during this time, while others do a spatial tracking task. What would most likely occur? A. Both groups perform equally well. B. The counting task group performs worse because it uses up working memory resources. C. The spatial tracking group performs worse because the filler task is spatial in nature. D. Both groups perform better because filler tasks prevent interference.

Answer 78

C. The spatial tracking group performs worse because the filler task is spatial in nature.

Question 79

If a person is asked to recall where different objects were placed on a table, but several seconds pass during which they must solve a math problem, what is the most likely effect on their performance? A. Slight decline, because even nonspatial tasks fill the retention interval. B. No decline, because math is not spatial. C. Improvement, because the task refreshes attention. D. Total loss of recall, regardless of task type.

Answer 79

A. Slight decline, because even nonspatial tasks fill the retention interval.

Question 80

Why does forgetting in spatial STM increase as the complexity of the filler task increases? A. Complex tasks demand more of the phonological loop. B. Complex tasks weaken long-term memory consolidation. C. Complex tasks compete with maintaining the spatial framework. D. Complex tasks enhance rehearsal processes that overwrite memory.

Answer 80

C. Complex tasks compete with maintaining the spatial framework.

Question 81

In an experiment, participants view four colorful geometric shapes for two seconds. After a short delay filled with a verbal counting task, they are asked to recall which shapes they saw. Which result is most likely? A. Recall will be poor because verbal counting disrupts object STM. B. Recall will remain good because object STM is not affected by articulatory suppression. C. Recall will improve because verbal rehearsal supports visual encoding. D. Recall will fail because the delay eliminates visual representations.

Answer 81

B. Recall will remain good because object STM is not affected by articulatory suppression.

Question 82

Two participants each view four objects: one sees simple colored squares, the other sees complex, patterned objects with many visual features. Both are asked to recall all objects after a few seconds. What will likely happen? A. The participant who saw complex objects will recall fewer items. B. Both participants will recall about the same number of items. C. The participant who saw simple objects will recall more items. D. The participant who saw complex objects will recall more items.

Answer 82

B. Both participants will recall about the same number of items.

Question 83

During a visual memory task, performance begins to drop noticeably after participants are asked to remember five or more objects. What does this finding suggest? A. The phonological loop is reaching its limit. B. The capacity of object STM has been exceeded. C. The participants are not rehearsing enough. D. The features of the objects are too similar.

Answer 83

B. The capacity of object STM has been exceeded

Question 84

In a study, participants are shown several objects, then must complete a short math task before recall. Their recall accuracy remains strong. What does this indicate about object STM? A. It is resistant to interference from non-visual tasks. B. It depends heavily on active rehearsal. C. It primarily stores verbal labels for objects. D. It is enhanced by nonspatial filler tasks.

Answer 84

A. It is resistant to interference from non-visual tasks.

Question 85

A participant studies a grid of shapes where only one shape changes between study and test. When the delay between study and test increases to 9 seconds, what is most likely to happen to their performance? A. It remains perfect because visual STM is long-lasting. B. It improves because the delay allows more rehearsal. C. It declines because visual STM fades over time without rehearsal. D. It stays constant because visual memory is immune to time-based decay.

Answer 85

C. It declines because visual STM fades over time without rehearsal.

Question 86

Researchers find that participants perform well when remembering patterns of three blocks, but performance sharply declines when five or more blocks are shown. What does this result demonstrate? A. Visual STM capacity is limited to about three to four items. B. Spatial STM can hold up to seven items, similar to Miller’s law. C. Performance is determined only by the complexity of the shapes. D. Long-term memory interference causes the decline.

Answer 86

A. Visual STM capacity is limited to about three to four items.

Question 87

Two participants perform a visual memory task. One views simple patterns of 3 blocks, while the other views complex patterns of 3 blocks. Both are tested after a 5-second delay. Who is more likely to recall the correct pattern? A. Both will perform similarly, because number of items matters more than complexity. B. The one with complex patterns, because more detail enhances encoding. C. The one with simple patterns, because complexity always reduces recall. D. Both will fail equally, because delay eliminates all visual STM.

Answer 87

A. Both will perform similarly, because number of items matters more than complexity.

Question 88

In an EEG study, participants were shown arrays of colored squares and asked to remember them. Brain activity in the opposite hemisphere increased with the number of items but plateaued after four. What does this finding suggest about visual STM? A. Visual STM capacity is unlimited when attention is distributed evenly. B. Visual STM has a capacity limit of about four items, linked to attentional resources. C. Brain activity stops increasing due to fatigue rather than memory limits. D. Visual STM relies entirely on verbal rehearsal.

Answer 88

B. Visual STM has a capacity limit of about four items, linked to attentional resources.

Question 89

In the change-detection ERP experiment, when participants made recognition errors, their brain activation during the retention interval was lower than in correct trials. What does this imply? A. Neural activity reflects the active maintenance of visual information. B. Errors occur randomly and are unrelated to neural activity. C. Brain activation is suppressed during successful recall. D. Errors are due to verbal interference, not neural mechanisms.

Answer 89

A. Neural activity reflects the active maintenance of visual information.

Question 90

During a visual STM task, increasing the number of items from two to five does not increase ERP amplitude after the fourth item. What conclusion can be drawn about attentional processes? A. Attention can maintain only about four visual items at once. B. Attention shifts randomly between items regardless of number. C. Attention capacity increases with rehearsal speed. D. Attention is unaffected by visual memory demands

Answer 90

A. Attention can maintain only about four visual items at once.

Question 91

A participant is shown a red triangle and a blue circle. Later, they incorrectly report seeing a blue triangle and a red circle. Which cognitive process failed in this example? A. Feature detection B. Object recognition C. Feature binding D. Spatial attention

Answer 91

C. Feature binding

Question 92

In an experiment, participants are instructed to focus only on the color of several objects, ignoring their shapes. Compared to trials where they must process both color and shape, what result would you expect? A. Processing only one feature leads to slower and less accurate responses. B. Processing both features together reduces errors and increases speed. C. Processing one feature is faster and places less demand on binding mechanisms. D. Processing one feature disrupts feature integration across all stimuli

Answer 92

C. Processing one feature is faster and places less demand on binding mechanisms.

Question 93

In the study, participants performed a digit recall task while remembering visual items (shapes, colors, or both). What does the finding that performance did not decline under the dual-task condition suggest? A. Visual STM relies on verbal rehearsal to maintain bound objects. B. Attention-demanding verbal tasks do not interfere with maintaining visual features or bound objects. C. Binding features into objects cannot occur without verbal support. D. Visual STM cannot retain combinations of features under dual-task conditions.

Answer 93

B. Attention-demanding verbal tasks do not interfere with maintaining visual features or bound objects.

Question 94

Participants found the binding condition (remembering shape + color together) harder than the single-feature conditions. What does this indicate? A. Binding features into a unified object increases the memory load compared to remembering a single feature. B. Binding features reduces the need for visual attention. C. Single features require more attentional resources than bound objects. D. Verbal interference is required to detect binding difficulties.

Answer 94

A. Binding features into a unified object increases the memory load compared to remembering a single feature.

Question 95

Which task is commonly used to assess spatial STM? A. Digit span task B. Corsi block-tapping task C. Change-detection task for colors D. Feature binding task

Answer 95

B. Corsi block-tapping task

Question 96

If a participant can accurately recall 4 visual objects and 5 spatial locations, what does this indicate? A. Visual and spatial STM capacities are identical. B. Visual STM has a slightly lower capacity than spatial STM, but the systems work together. C. Both capacities exceed typical limits of STM. D. Spatial STM is limited by the complexity of visual features.

Answer 96

B. Visual STM has a slightly lower capacity than spatial STM, but the systems work together.

Question 97

In an experiment, participants performed a spatial memory task (remembering the location of a dot) while also performing a visual interference task (detecting color changes). What is the most likely outcome? A. Spatial memory performance will decline significantly. B. Visual interference will not affect spatial memory. C. Both spatial and visual memory will be equally impaired. D. Spatial memory will improve due to cross-modal enhancement

Answer 97

B. Visual interference will not affect spatial memory.

Question 98

When participants perform a visual memory task (recognizing unfamiliar Chinese characters) while performing a spatial interference task, what happens? A. Visual memory is disrupted because spatial and visual STM share resources. B. Visual memory is unaffected because visual and spatial STM are separate systems. C. Visual memory improves due to spatial rehearsal. D. Both visual and spatial STM fail completely.

Answer 98

B. Visual memory is unaffected because visual and spatial STM are separate systems.

Question 99

What is the primary conclusion from studies showing modality-specific interference in visual and spatial STM tasks? A. Visual and spatial STM are combined into a single storage system. B. There are separate STM systems for visual and spatial information. C. Interference tasks affect both visual and spatial STM equally. D. Visual and spatial STM cannot maintain information beyond 5 seconds.

Answer 99

B. There are separate STM systems for visual and spatial information.

Question 100

HM, after bilateral hippocampal resection, could recall recent items at the end of a list but could not form new long-term memories. Which aspect of his memory is intact? A. Anterograde long-term memory B. Recency effect in free recall C. Formation of new episodic memories D. Consolidation of semantic memory

Answer 100

B. Recency effect in free recall

Question 101

HM could learn new motor skills (like mirror tracing) despite profound amnesia for events and facts. Which type of memory does this demonstrate? A. Procedural memory B. Episodic memory C. Semantic memory D. Short-term memory

Answer 101

A. Procedural memory

Question 102

Which pattern of memory performance would you expect in HM when asked to recall a list of words immediately and after a 30-minute delay? A. Both early (primacy) and late (recency) items recalled normally B. Primacy items recalled poorly; recency items recalled normally C. Recency items recalled poorly; primacy items recalled normally D. Both primacy and recency items recalled normally

Answer 102

B. Primacy items recalled poorly; recency items recalled normally

Question 103

Patient KF had impaired digit span and difficulty recalling items at the end of a list, but could recall items at the beginning. Which memory component is most clearly affected? A. Long-term memory (LTM) B. Procedural memory C. Short-term memory (STM) D. Semantic memory

Answer 103

C. Short-term memory (STM)

Question 104

Despite impaired STM, KF could recall primacy items in free recall. What does this indicate about his memory abilities? A. His LTM/declarative memory is largely intact B. His STM is functioning normally C. His procedural memory is impaired D. He cannot form new long-term memories

Answer 104

A. His LTM/declarative memory is largely intact

Question 105

Compared to HM, KF shows an opposite memory pattern. Which of the following correctly contrasts their memory profiles? A. HM: impaired STM, intact LTM; KF: intact STM, impaired LTM B. HM: impaired LTM, intact STM; KF: impaired STM, intact LTM C. HM: impaired procedural memory; KF: impaired declarative memory D. HM: impaired primacy effect; KF: impaired recency effect

Answer 105

B. HM: impaired LTM, intact STM; KF: impaired STM, intact LTM

Question 106

Patients with phonological STM deficits show better recall of digits when presented visually rather than verbally. What does this suggest? A. Their STM deficit is modality-independent B. Their deficit specifically affects the phonological loop in verbal STM C. Visual STM is impaired more than verbal STM D. Long-term memory compensates for their STM deficits

Answer 106

B. Their deficit specifically affects the phonological loop in verbal STM

Question 107

KF and PV fail to show phonological similarity or word-length effects in verbal STM tasks. What does this indicate? A. Their STM capacity is normal B. They are unable to use phonological coding and rehearsal C. Their LTM encoding is impaired D. Visual memory is also impaired

Answer 107

B. They are unable to use phonological coding and rehearsal

Question 108

In free recall tasks, KF and PV show reduced recency in verbal STM but normal long-term recency. What conclusion can be drawn? A. Their long-term memory is impaired B. Their ability to engage the recency strategy in STM is impaired C. Recency effects are independent of STM D. They have no memory deficits at all

Answer 108

B. Their ability to engage the recency strategy in STM is impaired

Question 109

Which of the following is spared in patients with phonological STM deficits like KF and PV? A. Digit span for orally presented numbers B. Phonological similarity effect C. Visual STM capacity (e.g., Corsi task) D. Verbal recency effect

Answer 109

C. Visual STM capacity (e.g., Corsi task)

Question 110

Patient LH has difficulty remembering colors and shapes but can accurately recall locations and routes. Which STM system is selectively impaired? A. Verbal STM B. Spatial STM C. Visual (object) STM D. Phonological STM

Answer 110

C. Visual (object) STM

Question 111

Patient MV, with right frontal damage, shows normal visual memory but cannot remember spatial locations in the Corsi block-tapping task. Which STM system is affected? A. Object STM B. Spatial STM C. Phonological STM D. Procedural memory

Answer 111

B. Spatial STM

Question 112

Patient LE has excellent memory for spatial tasks (e.g., route recall) but struggles with drawing objects from memory. What does this dissociation demonstrate? A. Visual and spatial STM are served by the same system B. Visual STM and spatial STM rely on separate, independent systems C. Deficits in visual STM always cause deficits in spatial STM D. Verbal STM can compensate for visual STM deficits

Answer 112

B. Visual STM and spatial STM rely on separate, independent systems

Question 113

Which of the following statements best summarizes the pattern seen across patients LH, LE, and MV? A. Verbal STM is impaired whenever visual or spatial STM is damaged B. Visual STM and spatial STM are independent, and damage can selectively affect one without affecting the other C. Damage to frontal or occipital regions always impairs both visual and spatial STM D. Visual STM deficits always accompany phonological STM deficits

Answer 113

B. Visual STM and spatial STM are independent, and damage can selectively affect one without affecting the other