Lab 2

Question 1

Successful learning vidoe

Answer 1

Need retrievable memorization
- Successful learners memorize but also can think

They have memories of patterns for types of problems, types of situations, and procedures
- Learning is neurobiological

Question 2

Memories stored in brain processes

Answer 2

Each neuron encodes a tiny part of the memory
- The memory is recalled when the connected circuit of memories is fired

The network connections between neurons = synapses

Each neuron triggers the next neuron it’s connected to by transmitting a signal on axon
- The receiving neuron receive the signal through their dendrites
- The axon and dendrite connect to form the synapses
- Synapses much be closed and strengthened by building more axons

Only when there is enough training does the brain build axons branches and synapses to build and strengthen memories

Question 3

Reconsolidation

Answer 3

Reconsolidation = process of updating memories during retrieval when the reattempt is different

Question 4

Sleep and breaks

Answer 4

Need 7-8 hours on sleep each night

Need repetition Take a 6 hour break to let the brain consolidate or finish growing the info
to remember things
When mastering a task, practice variations of the task durin the retrieval
practice
- This helps to imprint the info faster’

Take a 6 hour break to let the brain consolidate or finish growing the info

Question 5

Brain circuits

Answer 5

The brain uses 2 circuits to manage memories

1st circuit (into) is for putting info into long-term memory
- One way circuit

The 2nd parallel circuit is for retrieving memories
- Two way circuit (we stregnthen the retrieval pathways and the memories network)

Question 6

Successful learning - application

Answer 6

Need to fail at retrieval to build stronger retrieval memories

• We relive the moment in our brains when we created the memory to retrieve it

Practice quizzing yourself in different circumstances (like time of day, setting)
Need breaks in studying

Question 7

Successful learning - goals accomplished

Answer 7

1. The gap in time helps you partially forget the topic (this condition helps your neurons to build more axon connections)
2. The gap in time guarantees different circumstances

Question 8

Retrieval

Answer 8

Retrieval practice + summarizing = understanding

Retrieval practice:
Summarizing: builds connections between the memories in your brain

Write down a brief summary of the main ideas from the discussion
- Don’t look at notes for this

Question 9

Homogenous characters

Answer 9

Homologenous characters = similar characters (traits) that are shared by 2 groups of animals because their common ancestor had the trait

Question 10

Analogous character

Answer 10

It’s also possible that 2 types of animals have a similar character/trait that isn’t due to common ancestry = analogous character

An analogous character evolved independently in the two different lineaages because of similar selective pressures (both organisms needed that trait to survive)

Question 11

Convergent evolution

Answer 11

Convergent evolution = evolution of analogous traits

Both lineages met at the same adaptation separately (both meet at the dash mark separately)

Ex: Caecilians have no limbs but their most closely related to the frog which has 4 limbs
Snakes also don’t have limbs but they’re most closely related to alligators which have 4 limbs
- They evolved the trait of having no limbs independently during their separate evolutionary histories

Question 12

Scientists use what

Answer 12

Morphology = the physical form of an animal

Also use embryonic development to understand evolutionary history

Question 13

Planet divides into 3 domains

Answer 13

Bacteria
Archaea
Eukarya

Question 14

Bacteria and archaea

Answer 14

Organisms in this group are single-celled organisms

Their DNA is not in an membrane-bound nucleus

Question 15

Archaea

Answer 15

These organisms live in extreme environments that are cold, hot, acidic, salty, or deep in the ocean

They can also live in moderate conditions
- They can live in or on humans and other animals

Question 16

Eukarya

Answer 16

Made of eukaryotic organisms

Their DNA is within a membrane-bound nucleus
Ex: plants, fungi, and animmals

Question 17

Plants

Answer 17

Autotrouphs = they make their own food using carbon dioxide and they use sun as energy source

Question 18

Fungi

Answer 18

absorptive heterotrophs - so they secrete enzymes outside of their body and then absorb digested food

Fungi and animals cannot make organic molecules from carbin dioxide or the sun
- They have to eat other organisms for energy and nutrients = hetrotroph

Question 19

Animals

Answer 19

Fungi and animals cannot make organic molecules from carbin dioxide or the sun
- They have to eat other organisms for energy and nutrients = hetrotroph

Animals: ingestive heterotrophs - they bring the food inside and then digest it

Question 20

Metazoa and Eumentazoa

Answer 20

Animals are first in the fossil record 580 million years ago
***all animals share a common ancestor

All descendant animals are part of a clade
- The clade name = Metazoa
Inside the clade Metazoa, is Eumetazoa

Animals whose cells form true tissues are in Eumetazoa
***all animals except sponges are placed within eumetazoa

Question 21

Body plan and tasks of staying alive

Answer 21

Body plan = structure or design that defines the group of animals

Features of a phylum’s body plan include: body symmetry, presence or absence of true tissues, type of support, organization of nervous system, pattern of development, absence of presence of body cavity

Question 22

Tasks of Staying Alive: Getting Nutrients

Answer 22

Animals find nutrients in their food and ingest them in the form of big molecules (carbs, proteins, and lipids)

Basic steps of getting nutrients:
1. Feeding strategy = how an animal gets food and iingests it

2. Chemical digestion = the big molecules in food (carbs, proteins, lipids_ must be broken down into smaller chemical subunits
   Carbohydrates = broken down into simple sugars (ex: glucose)
   - Proteins = broken down into amino acids
   - Lipids = broken down into fatty acids
3. Distribution of nutrients to all body parts:
   The digested nutrients have to get from the site of chemical digestion to all of the cells in the body
4. Elimination of indigestibles:
   Whatever the animal can’t break down, they get rid of in the body

Question 23

Gas Exchange

Answer 23

Cells of the animal need oxygen to stay alive and have to get rid of carbon dioxide

Gas exchange = process of getting oxygen into the cell and getting carbon diozide out of the cell

Metabolic process: convert energy in the bonds of the digested nutrients into ATP (oxygen is needed to make ATP) and carbon dioxide is a product from this process

Question 24

Excretion of Nitrogenous Waste

Answer 24

Amino acids have nitrogen
- If the body has extra amino acids that they don’t store in the body, the body converts them to other nitrogen containing molecules (called nitrogenous wastes)

The nitrogenous wastes must be removed from body → this process = excretion

Question 25

Process of Excretion of Nitrogenous Waste

Answer 25

The protein gets chemially broken down into amino acids The extra amino acids get converted into nitrogenous waste The nitrogenous waste gets removed out of the body

Question 26

Phylum Porifera: Sponges

Answer 26

Phylum = broad category Every animal phyla is a clade Sponges = animals Profiera = pore bearer (sponges have many pores/holes)

Question 27

Sponge Body Plan: Cell

Answer 27

Sponges are multicellular They have specialized cells but their cells aren’t organized into true tissues → so they’re metazoa but not eumetazoa

Question 28

Sponge Body Plan: Symmetry

Answer 28

If the animal can be split along at least 1 plane, tne the animal is symmetrical ***Sponges are asymmetrical

Question 29

Shape and Support of Sponges

Answer 29

2 categories that give them support and shape: 1. Spongin = flexible fibers made of collagen Specialized cells of the sponge secrete spongin 2. Spicules = mineralized parts of the skeleton Specialized cells secrete them - Can be made of silica or calcium carbonate - Come in many forms *some sponges have both spongin and spicules, some only have one ***Sponges don’t have neurons (nerve cells) and don’t have nervous system

Question 30

Sponge Body Wall

Answer 30

Made of 3 layers: inner, middle and outer layers Inner layer: made of a single layer of cells called choanocytes Outer layer: made of single layer of cells called pinacocytes Middle layer: called mesohyl is a gel-life substance made of collagen - Spicules and spongin are in the mesohyl

Question 31

Pinaocytes

Answer 31

in outer layer Pinacotyes: thin, tightly joined cells that form the outside of the sponge

Question 32

Chinoacytes

Answer 32

Choanocytes: are in the inner layer and are important for getting nutrients

Question 33

Sponge Pores

Answer 33

Pores: openings in the body wall Formed by a proocyte - Pores allow water to flow through a canal into the central cavity

Question 34

Ameobocyte

Answer 34

Ameobocyte: can move through the mesohyl (middle layer of body wall) in middle layer

Question 35

Aquiferous System or Canal System

Answer 35

Water flows through canals Sponges are sessile = sponges are attached to a surface and can’t move - They need water to bring them everything they need and need them to take away things they don’t need because sponges can’t get them themselves

Question 36

Process of Sponge

Answer 36

Water enters the sponge through the pores Then the water goes through the canal into the central cavity Then the water flows from the central cavity into the Osculum (opening) where the water leaves the sponge

Question 37

Diffusion

Answer 37

Diffusion = process of gases moving in and out of the cells Net, passive movement of molecules, moving from a high concentration to lower concentration - Slow process Every cell needs a lot of oxygen to convert energy in food into enegry in the body of ATP *** Chemically digested nutrients + oxygen → Carbon dioxide + ATP + water The concentration of oxygen in the water around the cell is higher than the oxygen inside the cell Oxygen diffuses from out of the cell to inside the cell - More carbon dioxide inside the cell than outside the cell

Question 38

Diffusion for Sponges

Answer 38

Diffusion constrains the body plan of the sponge ***Cells need to be near a source of oxygen for diffusion because it’s a slow process ***Diffusion is only good at moving things in and out of the cell that only go short distances Every cell in the sponge has to do its own gas exchange since they don’t have lungs = direct diffusion gas exchange Oxygen diffuses into the cell and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the cell directly - Cells need to be close to to oxygen - if not, they will die Pinacocyte can only be 1 cell thick because diffusion is so slow - Choanocytes do gas exchange with the water in the central cavity

Question 39

Sponges Obtaining Food

Answer 39

First step to get nutrients - Water current needed to bring the nutrients into the sponge - The choanocyte is responsible for making the current Each choanocyte has a flagellum, and the beating movement of the flagella of all the choanocytes makes a water current through the sponge’s body The micovilli traps the food particles within the water current - The trapped food is brought into the choanocytes

Question 40

Feeding Strategy

Answer 40

Because the sponge gets food that’s suspended in the water *Called Active Suspension Feeding

Question 41

Distrubtion of Trapped Food to Sponge Cells

Answer 41

Sponges don’t have organs and systems, but they do have cells that keep them alive ***The amoebocyte picks up the food in the membrane from the choanocyte and transports the food to other cells in the body

Question 42

Sponges - Chemically Digested Food

Answer 42

Digestive enzymes cut big food molecules into smaller subunits Sponges chemically digest food after it’s been brought into the cell and then break them into smaller molecules The cells use the digested food to build and make ATP

Question 43

Eliminating Undigested Material

Answer 43

Cells get rid of undigested material into the canal system and then it leaves the sponge with the water

Question 44

Excretion of Material - Sponges

Answer 44

Sponges break down the protein into amino acids - Excess amino acids get converted into nitrogenous waste (ammonia) Ammonia is toxic to animals, so the sponge gets rid of ammonia ***Ammonia is in higher concentration inside the cell, so it diffuses out of the cell into the water around the sponge

Question 45

Why are Oceans Important

Answer 45

oceans contain 97% of Earth's water - oceans cover 70% of the Earth's surface - UN said that it is a human right to have a clean and healthy environment *almost 2.4 billion ppl live within 60 miles of the oceanic coast - oceans provide food, jobs, and livlihoods - oceans help fight the climate crisis by absorbing green house gases - home to many animals

Question 46

Sponges - What they do

Answer 46

used for bathing, art, and decor do water filtration: they filter water qand cleanse the ocean - people do research on the sponges for their chemical properties *sponges are early warning signs for enviornmental decline or pollution

Question 47

Sponges and Pharmaceuticals

Answer 47

- a lot of chemicals from sponges - the chemicals can treat diseases like AIDS and alzheimers

Question 48

Sponges = Sessile

Answer 48

sponges are permanetly attached to a substrate and don't move around on their own - they prevent algea from growing on them bc they can't clean themselves

Question 49

Sponge Aquaculture

Answer 49

sponges are a sustainable option isntead of fishing - sea sponge farming helps gender equality in Zanzibar because girls can't really work

Question 50

Compound Microscope - Getting it out of Cabinet

Answer 50

- arm of microscope should be facing you - grab the arm of the microscope and take it out of cabinet

Question 51

Cleaning Microscope

Answer 51

- only use lens paper to clean the lenses - clean the eyepieces and each objective lens - crumple the lens paper so the oil from your hands doesn't get on lens

Question 52

microscope - don't touch

Answer 52

don't loosen the lock screw don;t loosen the screw that holds the condenser

Question 53

Objectives of different magnification

Answer 53

the three objectives = the lobe things - 4X, 10x, and 40x - use the ring to turn the magnifier and then it should click in place

Question 54

Microscope instructions:

Answer 54

- move the stage to the highest position possible using the coarse focus knob - the slider = the metal thing with a spring that holds the slide in place course focus knob: the thick barrel that you use at first (only for 4x and 10x) ***only use fine focus in 40x oculars = the black things you look through into the microscope - want to only see one circle not two

Question 55

Light Intensity of Microscope

Answer 55

***the light intensity decreases when the magnification increases diaphragm = controls the amount of light reaching the specimen (it's under the stage platform) ***working distance (the amount of space you have between the lens where the sample is and the oculars) decreases as magnification increases

Question 56

Depth of Focus

Answer 56

the range of depth that a specimen is in focus at one time ***as magnification increases, the depth of focus decreases -- that's why you use 40x

Question 57

Magnification of Focusing Summary

Answer 57

objective = 4x ocular = 10x (always) total magification = 40x ***always multiply the objective number (4,10,40) by 10 to get total magnification

Question 58

Tardigrades

Answer 58

(looked at them under microscope) - they can survive extreme conditions: where they... - they pull their legs in and get rid of most of. the water in their bodies - they slow their metabolism - they go into a dormant state (don't move) = called a tun when the conditions get better, they resume normal life **they are their own phylum (group of classification) - closely related to anthropods (bugs, spiders, crabs)

Question 59

Spongin

Answer 59

- made of collagen (protein) and fibers - spongin gives structural support and flexibility for certain sponge species - the spongin helps them keep their shape while water moves through their bodies - bath sponge only has spongin *some sponges have both spngin and spicules

Question 60

Grantia - Sponge

Answer 60

a sponge that has spongin and spicules - we put bleach on the slide with the grantia and saw that the bleach dissolves the spongin but not the spicule

Question 61

Leusosolenia - Spong Type

Answer 61

it's so thin that it folds and twists in place - only made of spicules ***spicules can be defensive for sponges because they can't move but are sharp

Question 62

Glass Sponge

Answer 62

the sponge that looked 3D printed - the spicules are made of silicon (silicon is in glass) - engineers are trying to use this design to build bridges because it's very strong and light

Question 63

Flow of Water Through the Sponge

Answer 63

because sponges are sessile = they can't move, water brings them a lot of stuff water brings them: - food, oxygen - takes away CO2, nitrogenous waste, and indigestibes in food - carries gametes (egg and sperm) into and out of the sponge video: they dyed water and watched as it very quickly traveled into the sponge through the pores ands out of the sponge through the osculum

Question 64

Adolf Fick's Law

Answer 64

his law describes the relationship between the rate of diffusion ***the rate of diffusion is proportional to the surface are and is inversely proportional to the thickness of the membrane **if the surface area increases, the rate of diffusion also increases - sponges are only one cell layer thick because if they were thicker, diffusion wouldn't be fast enough to bring the cells water

Question 65

Sponges Getting Nutrients Chain

Answer 65

the sponges get food - the food is carbs, lipids, and proteins - they get broken up through chemical digestion (enzymes) into glucose, fatty acids, and amino acids (these are the nutrients) - then the ameobocytes transport the nutrients to the cells - the nutrients and oxygen form ATP for the cells finally, indigestibles from the food get eliminated from the body

Question 66

Excretion of Nitrogenous Waste

Answer 66

extra amino acids that can't be stored get broken into ammonia - ammonia is toxic so it has to get excreted fast (they pee it out)

Question 67

Biggest Sponges = most surface area

Answer 67

the more folding of choanocyte layer forms chambers - this increases the surface area (***we don't increase volume) - the increased surface area increases rate of diffusion which means food gets there faster and oxygen