What is the limited effects theory?
- argument from 1800s - 1950’s = media disrupt existing social order
- Lazarsfeld conducted empirical research to test these assumptions
- used empirical, social research to validate/disprove claims
What are the findings of the limited effects theory?
- media doesn’t have the impact we think it does
- only a few people are open to psychological manipulation
- media is powerless in shaping opinion because individuals and groups are different to each other
- media rarely influences decision making
- direct propaganda comes from others (opinion leaders influence)
- adult audiences already have opinions different from media
- only socially isolated may be directly influenced
What are the media user’s categories relevant to the limited effects theory?
Gatekeepers
Screen media messages that help others shape their views
Opinion leaders
Pass on info to opinion followers
Opinion followers
Receive info from opinion leaders
List the challenges of the limited effects theory.
- Reductionism
- Neo-Marxists
- British Cultural Studies
Explain “reductionism” as a challenger of limited effects theory.
- Americans reduced and simplified complex communication processes and social phenomenon
- made European students resentful
Explain “neo-marxists” as a challenger of limited effects theory.
- European social theorists who believed the media allowed social elites to promote their own worldview and therefore create and maintain their power
- argued that elites could use media to promote their own values, ideals and cultures
- lead to hegemonic culture in which elites influenced, controlled and manipulated the media for their benefit
Explain “British cultural studies” as a challenger of limited effects theory.
- believed by some neomarxists - focused on mass media’s role in promoting a dominant, hegemonic worldview and culture among subgroups in society
- media use led to individuals supporting the ideals, values and world views put forward in the media by dominant elites
- study found that some resisted hegemonic ideals and, instead demanded alternative interpretations
What makes the uses and gratifications theory different from other media related theories?
- doesn’t look at the effects, looks at how or why we as the audience use the mass media
Findings of the uses and gratifications theory.
- the audience consumes media to fulfill a basic need
- the media meets those needs
List and explain the categories of Needs met by the media according to the uses and gratifications theory.
Diversion
To escape the busyness of life/problems (passive viewer)
Personal relationships
Companionship, form relationships, fit into social group
Personal identity
Find out about ourselves (explore, adjust and confirm personal ID)
Surveillance
Use the media to find our about events happening around us (inform about issues that may affect us)
Explain the first revival of the uses and gratifications theory.
- New survey research methods and data analysis techniques allowed development of NB new strategies for studying and interpreting audience uses and gratification (added use)
- some media researchers developed increasing awareness that people’s active use of media might be an NB mediating factor, making effects more or less likely (active audience will satisfy different needs to a passive audience)
- some researchers were concerned that the effects research was focusing too much on unintended negative effects of media while intended positive uses of media were being ignored
Explain the second and more recent revival of the uses and gratifications theory.
- constant development and growth of the internet, which has affected people’s media choices and expectations
- researchers examining new technology and its potential impact on individuals and society have found this approach to be useful
List the assumptions of the uses and gratifications theory.
- the audience is active and it’s media use is goal oriented
- the initiative in linking need gratification to a specific media choice rests with the audience member
- the media compete with other sources of need satisfaction
- people are aware enough of their own media use, interests and motives to be able to provide people with an accurate picture of that use
- value judgements regarding the audience’s linking its needs to specific media or content should be suspended
Explain “the audience is active and it’s media use is goal oriented” as an assumption of the uses and gratification theory.
- an individual can display various levels of activity when interacting with the medium of their choice, even if it’s a minimal activity level
Explain “the initiative in linking need gratification to a specific media choice rests with the audience member” as an assumption of the uses and gratification theory.
- it’s up to the individual to decide which medium to expose him or herself to satisfy a need ( i.e. You choose which movie will satisfy your need)
Explain “the media compete with other sources of need satisfaction” as an assumption of the uses and gratification theory.
- you have a variety of choices when wanting to satisfy needs. You’re less likely to turn to media to fill a need that your friends have filled.
Explain “people are aware of their own media use to be able to provide people with an accurate picture of that use” as an assumption of the uses and gratification theory.
- researchers are suggesting that individuals are aware of their media choices ( they’re not usually passive consumers of media)
I.e. You actively choose which magazine to buy.
Explain “value judgements regarding the audience’s linking its needs to specific media or content should be suspended” as an assumption of the uses and gratification theory.
-researcher needs to be objective and hold no value judgements about the individual’s choice of media and their reasons for making that choice
Give the strengths of the uses and gratifications theory.
- focuses attention on individuals instead of media
- respects intellect and ability of media consumers
- provides interesting analyses of how people experience media content
- differentiates active users of media from more passive users
- Studies the use of media as part of everyday social interaction
- provides useful insight into adoption of new media (digital and social media)
What are the weaknesses of the uses and gratifications theory?
- relies on functional analysis, which can create a bias toward the status quo
- can’t easily address the presence or absence of effects
- many of its key concepts are criticized as unmeasurable
- is too oriented toward micro level (too focused on the individual)
Explain the social cognitive theory.
- through observation, experience and self regulation, we learn to associate with each other in socially acceptable ways
- when behaviour isn’t socially rewarding or leads to punlishment, we’re persuaded to stop the behaviour (vice versa)
- Bandura observed that components of learning occur through observation and modeling of behaviours (this lead to social cognitive theory)
- we are presented with a stimulus and then we respond - stimulus becomes a negative reinforcer
- in reality we observe the process of stimulus-response-reinforcement indifferent settings then we choose to avoid a similar stimulus
- i.e. You don’t have to experience something to know that there will be negative consequences
- we can learn through modeling (imitation)
What are the assumptions of the social cognitive theory?
- learn through observation and modeling
- internal process and cognition of observed behaviour may lead to learned behaviour
- behaviour is goal oriented (set goals to motivate for changed behaviour will lead to accomplishment of goals
- behaviour is self regulated
- punishment and reinforcement indirectly affect the learning process
List the ways in which social cognition through media representations operates in one or more of three ways.
- observational learning
- inhibitory effects
- disinhibitory effects
Explain how social cognition through media representations operates in observational learning.
- consumers of representations in the media can acquire new patterns of behaviour by watching these representations
- children mimic what they see on tv, adults might try a recipe they saw on cooking show
