1
Q
Give an example to illustrate and explain Postman and Power’s argument that “news is often made rather than gathered”
A
- some events have near-universal interests and consequences
- most news doesn’t even exist in the event, an event becomes news
- this occurs when it’s selected for notice out of the confusion around us
- news is more often made rather than gathered
- news is made on the basis of what journalist thinks is NB and interesting
- journalists have the power to set an agenda or change the frame
2
Q
What is suggested by “we see what we expect to see ; often we focus on what we are paid to see”
A
- depends on journalists point of view
- subjective interpretation of the reader or listener
- the problematic nature of “facts” is that journalists see what they are paid to see
- those who lay us to see usually expect us to accept their notions not only of what is NB but of what are NB details
- we find ourselves evidence that supports our worldview
E.g. ENCA vs SABC news
3
Q
Define news according to postman and powers
A
- a viewer must know something about the political beliefs and economic situations of those who provide news
- then the viewer can understand why some events are considered NB by those in charge of TV news and may compare those judgements with their own
- journalists try to determine what audiences think is NB and interesting
- there’s a perspective that argues against journalists imposing their own sense of significance on an audience, journalists must keep their own opinions to themselves
- many viewers depend on journalists to tell them what’s NB even if journalists were mere followers of public interest
- not all members of the audience agree on what they wish to know
- a viewer mustn’t only know what he or she thinks is significant as well
- a viewer must always take his/her relationship to a larger audience. TV is a mass medium therefore TV news show wasn’t meant for you alone
- it is public communication and the viewer needs to have some knowledge and opinions about the “public”
SH Donald Trump vs people killed in Nigeria
4
Q
Why is it said that media and the broader culture are interrelated
A
Cultural consumption
- consuming aspects of our culture and another culture (hairstyle, food…)
Social issues
- family values, materialism, acceptance, stereotypes, inequality, awareness…
Social unity
- Are we bringing people together through watching these shows or are we driving people apart through our judgements?
5
Q
Explain the marketplace of ideas metaphor with respect to policy and diversity.
A
- underlying theoretical justification for most diversity policies
- diversity is a key sub-component of an effectively functioning marketplace of ideas
- key dimension of the First Ammendment freedoms
- citizens are free to choose from a wide range of sources
- citizens participate in diversity to increase knowledge, encounter opposing viewpoints and become well-informed decision makers
- framework, source content and exposure diversity are the key to a self governed society
6
Q
Discuss the difference between variety and diversity.
A
VARIETY
Raw number of outlets or content choices available.
I.e. Genre of channels
DIVERSITY
Focuses on the number of choices and the differences among them
I.e. The number of channels within a particular genre
- increasing variety may be an NB policy objective
- increases in number of outlets can potentially lead to increases in diversity
7
Q
List the dimensions of diversity.
A
SOURCE DIVERSITY
Ownership diversity
Workforce diversity
CONTENT DIVERSITY
Format programme type diversity
Demographic diversity
Idea/Viewpoint diversity
EXPOSURE DIVERSITY
Horizontal exposure diversity
Vertical exposure diversity
8
Q
Explain source diversity.
A
- the assumption that optimum citizen decision making arises from consideration of diverse/antagonistic info sources
- communication policy makers have historically wanted to increase diversity of sources available to media audiences
- diversity contains sub-components and source diversity is conceptualized through
- – diversity of content/ programming
- – ownership of media outlets
- – diversity of workforce within outlets
9
Q
Explain ownership diversity as a sub-category of source diversity.
A
This is comprised of:
- diversity of content/programming
- diversity of ownership of media outlets
10
Q
Explain workforce diversity as a sub-category of source diversity.
A
- regulations to increase diversity of sources of info include diversity of workforce within media outlet
- policy makers have regulations such as: BBBEE and FCC’s Equal Employment Opportunity for broadcast liscencees
- rules encourage broadcast to have a personnel mix that reflects the market area
- stations can’t discriminate based on gender, religion, colour, race…
- AA measures must be in place to target women and minorities so that workforce reflects market
11
Q
Explain content diversity.
A
- second link in the diversity chain
- policies around source diversity assume that increased source diversity = increased content diversity
- policy objectives are pursued via structural regulation (affect the nature of the sources) compared to behavioural regulation (affect the actions of the sources)
- structural changes brought about by the policies are only an intermediate point on the way to achieving more far reaching policy objectives
12
Q
Explain format or programme type diversity as a sub-category of content diversity.
A
- refers to the category designations given to radio formats and individual TV programmes
- e.g. Range of different types of TV shows from which a viewer can choose during prime time
- is comedies x2, dramas x2, movie x1, crime x1
- policy makers have generally valued this kind of diversity
13
Q
Explain demographic diversity as a sub-category of content diversity.
A
- racial, ethnic, and gender diversity of the people featured within electronic media programmes
- minority groups and other demographic groups must be portrayed in accordance with prevalence in society
- roles on TV must reflect diversity of population including more women in the industry, therefore, source content relationship has been asserted again
- e.g. Oscars - no black actors or actresses nominated
14
Q
Explain idea/viewpoint diversity as a sub-category of content diversity.
A
- represents the most elusive component of content diversity
- diversity of viewpoints and of social, political and cultural perspectives represented within the media
- central to the ‘marketplace of ideas’ metaphor and its relationship to effective demographic self-governance
15
Q
Explain exposure diversity.
A
- central to comm policy because of relevance to ‘marketplace of ideas’ metaphor
- diversity of content sent vs. content received (what the audience selects)
- how many sources is audience exposed to? Are they varied? Diverse programming?
- some policy makers feel that audience exposure goes beyond the control of diversity policy and diversity perspective
- assumption that audiences that are provided with content variety, consume variety
- ‘marketplace of ideas’ cannot take place without variety or diversity exposure
- consumption of ideas (diverse) = well informed decision making
16
Q
Explain horizontal exposure as a sub-category of exposure diversity.
A
- who is watching which channels at which times
- audience fragmentation - the breaking of mass audience member into smaller groups
- how does the audience distribute itself across available content options
- the content variable is the point of focus
17
Q
Explain vertical exposure as a sub-category of exposure diversity.
A
- measures that focus on exposure patterns of individual audience member over time
- focuses on tendency if individual to move to the extremes of avoiding/attending media content (audience polarization) extent to which you expose yourself to diverse channels
18
Q
Critically evaluate Ian’s view that illegal downloading is not harming the music industry.
A
- people are going to download regardless
- proposed companies come together and charge minimum fee per song
- companies wouldn’t agree because of greed and power - they wanted to make more money
- laws at that time prevented “legal” downloading but these laws were created in 1930/1940s
19
Q
Ian wrote her essay in 2002. Discuss you viewpoint on whether today’s digital music situation is different or similar.
A
- completely different
- can legally download music
- iTunes buy music
- Apple Music and Spotify
20
Q
Discuss the elements of time with respect to radio using examples.
A
- radio is a time based medium
- linear flow of time - measured in seconds i.e. commercials / weeks i.e. Series or advert campaigns
- a programmes identity can be found in the way it orders its content
- morning programmes (hectic narrative) vs afternoon programmes (relaxed tempo)
- constructed as recurring pattern of sounds and themes arranged in a specific order with bones bulletins, weather reports, sports, call-ins etc.
- broadcasters wish to keep their audiences listening for as long as possible
- past and future are always intangible therefore there is always signposting to remind the audience who/what they are listening to
- enable listeners to get bearings quickly
21
Q
Discuss the elements of space/place with respect to radio using examples.
A
- producers use sound to take listeners to a particular place
- assemble location recordings of aural activity and atmospheric soundscapes
- not accurate reflections of the sounds of the world, but clearly selective and stylised
- create this sense of place is common to radio and radio news
- “take: listeners out of their real listening - prompts so many outside broadcasts, at concerts, music festivals, sports events etc.
- presented simultaneously to listeners as a change for them to take part in an event that they might never be able to attend in person
- window on the world, some access to the ongoing public life (beyond domestic home environment)
- “shrinking” global space - listeners can use broadcasting to expand their horizons
- sociability = an outcome that broadcasting can achieve (a virtual coming together of listeners)
- radio has the ability to make us aware of other listeners
- we are spoken to as individuals and the personal crises of individuals are described, but a community of shared interest is invoked
22
Q
To what extent and how do new ways of listening to music bring up considerations of time and space that are different from broadcast radio.
A
- freedom and choice of listening to what you want, when you want.
- no sense of community, you’re not part of the sociability aspect
- lack of awareness of what is going on around them.
- internet and radio = lack of reach
23
Q
List marketing activities used to promote films.
A
- publicity
- advertising
- trailers
- press coverage and film critics
- internet promotion
- film festivals and markets
- film awards
24
Q
Explain publicity as a marketing activity used to promote films.
A
- unpaid media attention
- includes a wide range of activities, including critic’s reviews and film festivals
- hollywood publicity = result of deliberate and calculated PRP’s
- begins after film receives green light, before production
25
Explain advertising as a marketing activity used to promote films.
- advertising costs for a film can be more than cost of production
- trade advertising involves adverts in trade papers before, during and after production for various purposes
- advertising and campaigns arranged by distributors
- advertising aimed at national and local level
- NB as big films open in wide releases across the country
26
Explain trailers as a marketing activity used to promote films.
- 30 secs - 4.5 mins long
- screened on TV, YouTube and Facebook
- shown up to a year before film is released
- crucial for successful film (effective and cost efficient)
27
Explain press-coverage and film critics as a marketing activity used to promote films.
- popular newspaper content
- press coverage involves film reviews and personal film star interviews
- recently more press attention granted for 'entertainment news'
- press = symbolic relationship
- critics screen movies and provide subjective views and comments
28
Explain Internet promotion as a marketing activity used to promote films.
- internet used to promote products
- internet site developed for films (promote films/gathering fan info)
- allows for dialogue (2-way comm)
- used for target marketing (data mining)
- may feature product placements or companies
- eg Ironman "I need a real burger"
29
Explain film festivals and markets as a marketing activity used to promote films.
- eg Durban Film Festivals
- attention given to some festivals/awards given to film makers/companies
- NB for smaller or independent films
- generates invaluable word-of-mouth promotion
- some filmmakers are weary, fearing negative response
- sometimes high expenses and cost of travel
30
Explain film awards as a marketing activity used to promote films.
- attention and acclaim can also be generated through various awards
- OSCARS and Academy Awards are benchmarks for filmmaking and play an NB economic role for the industry
- ie someone voted best actress can generate more income for that actress
- films generate exposure and increase in revenues
COMMUNICATION SCIENCE B
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