1
Q
some experts argue that [genetic/environmental] factors are most critical during the early stages of development, with the opposite being true during later stages
A
genetic (environmental more impt later)
2
Q
___zygous means that a gene is inherited from both parents, whereas heterozygous means that a gene is inherited from ___ parent
A
homozygous; only one parent
3
Q
Read:
A
alleles are variant forms of a gene
4
Q
In Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model…
____system is the child’s immediate environment and individual relationships
___system is the interactions between parts of the first system
___system includes elements in one’s broader environment that affect the immediate environment
___system includes overarching environment systems, practices, and ideologies
___system consists of the enviro events occurring over the lifespan which may be impacted by dev level
A
microsystem;
mesosystem;
exosystem;
macrosystem;
chronosystem
5
Q
Bronfenbrenner’s (2004) ecological model describes the ___system as consisting of cultural values, beliefs, and customs, while the ___system includes the parents’ workplace, the school board, community agencies, and local industries.
A
macrosystem; exosystem
6
Q
“Rutter’s indicators” are particularly accurate predictors of child psychopathology, and they consist of what 6 factors?
A
1) marital discord (severe)
2) low SES
3) overcrowding/large family size
4) paternal (not parental) criminality
5) maternal psychopathology
6) placement of child outside of the home
7
Q
an increased ACE score signals a higher risk for negative ___ outcomes in ___
A
negative health outcomes in adults
8
Q
___ ___ is a hereditary-environment interaction explanation that says that an individual’s status with a range for a certain trait is influenced by environmental factors
A
reaction range
9
Q
(genotype-environment correlations) what is it called when children actively seek out experiences that are consistent with their genetic predispositions?
A
niche-picking
10
Q
Read: colorblindness is a recessive trait that is carried on the X chromosome. Since the gene for color blindness is carried on the X chromosome, colorblindness would have to come from the mother for sons and from both the mother and father for daughters.
A
For a son to be colorblind, he would have to inherit the colorblind gene from his mother.
For a daughter to be colorblind, she would have to inherit the colorblind gene from her father and her mother. (However, a daughter would carry the trait if she inherits the gene from her father.)
11
Q
an epigenetic explanation for gene-environment interactions would say that these interactions are ___tional and ___.
A
bidirectional and ongoing
12
Q
how are sensitive periods different from critical periods? (name 3 ways)
A
sensitive periods are longer in duration and more flexible, and they are less tied to chronological age or maturational stage
13
Q
prenatal development is divided into 3 stages:
1) ___inal stage, 2 weeks
2) ___onic stage, 3-___ weeks
3) ___al stage, end of last stage to birth
During which stage is the fertilized ovum called the zygote?
A
germinal stage
embryonic stage, 3-8 weeks
fetal stage
during the germinal stage
14
Q
name 3 causes of birth defects (what kind of disorders, exposure to what, and poor health for whom?)
A
chromosomal disorders, exposure to teratogens, and poor maternal health
15
Q
aside from sperm and eggs, all human cells contain 46 chromosomes (23 pairs). While the 23rd pair are sex chromosomes, the first 22 are called what?
A
autosomes
16
Q
Phenylketonuria (PKU) is a ___ gene disorder that requires a diet low in the amino acid ___ soon after birth to prevent severe ___ disability. Tay-Sachs disease and sicke cell disease are also __“__ gene disorders.
A
recessive gene disorder; phenylalanine; severe intellectual disability (body doesn’t produce enzyme that processes phenylalanine); recessive gene disorders
17
Q
While many genetic disorders are recessive gene disorders, Huntington’s disease is an autosomal disorder that is due to the inheritance of a single ___ gene from one parent.
A
dominant gene (autosomal disorders are on one of the autosomes, not sex chromosomes)
18
Q
Down syndrome is an autosomal disorder caused by [an extra/an altered structure of] chromosome 21.
A
extra 21 (sxs include ID, delayed phys growth and motor dev, distinctive phys features, and increase susceptibility to Alzheimer’s, leukemia, and heart defects)
19
Q
name the abnormalities in number of sex chromosomes for Klinefelter syndrome and Turner syndrome
A
Klinefelter: males having 2 or more X chromosomes along with their Y
Turner: females having only 1 X chromosome
(Persistent Mullerian duct syndrome - lack of anti-Mullerian hormone or receptors for this hormone.
Fragile X syndrome - intellectual disability, cognitive impairments, certain physical and behavioral abnormalities.
Cushing syndrome - adrenal cortex malfunctioning)
20
Q
Males with Klinefelter syndrome have small ___ organs, develops ___ during puberty, has limited interest in ___al activity, are often s___, and may have what kinds of mental disabilities?
A
sex organs; breasts during puberty; sexual activity; often sterile; learning disabilities
21
Q
Females with Turner syndrome tend to be [shorter/taller], have certain characteristic physical features such as d___ eyelids and w___ neck, develop secondary sex characteristics slowly if not ___ ___, and may exhibit certain ___ defects (impaired visual-spatial, executive, and soc-cognitive functioning)
A
shorter; drooping eyelids and webbed neck; if not at all; cognitive defects
22
Q
which of these alterations in chromosome structure tends to not affect phenotype? deletion, inversion, or translocation?
A
inversion
23
Q
teratogens are substances that cause birth defects in the developing fetus and include drugs, chemicals, and certain maternal conditions. Name 3 drugs and 1 chemical element that are each common teratogens.
A
nicotine, alcohol, cocaine; lead
24
Q
Exposure during which stage of prenatal development are teratogens most likely to cause major structural abnormalities? [germinal, embryonic, or fetal stage?] This is during the [first/second/third] trimester. (An example is alcohol which has the most impact on phys dev during that trimester and psych/bh impacts during the other two)
A
embryonic (3-8 weeks); first trimester
(contrast this with with severe protein deficiency during the third trimester being especially detrimental to the developing brain)
25
for children with prenatal exposure to cocaine, their cognitive and behavior problems may persist at least into the ___ school years
early school years
26
cocaine, nicotine, and lead exposure to unborn babies are associated with ___ birth weight
low birth weight
27
cocaine use by a pregnant person increases the risk of spontaneous a___ and ___birth
spontaneous abortion and stillbirth (babies born to mothers who have used cocaine while pregnant are also at higher risk for SIDS, seizures, and reduced head circumference, and often have tremors, exaggerated startle response, high-pitched cry, sleep & feeding difficulties, dev delays, increased muscle tone, and tend to be irritable and hard to console)
28
cigarette smoking while pregnant increases the risk of s___ and ___ death. Infants born to mothers who smoke are at higher risk for S___, ___ diseases, and may have emotional, social, and cognitive challenges.
stillbirth and fetal death; risk for SIDS, respiratory diseases
29
exposure to lead during prenatal dev is associated with low b___ w___ and what kind of disability?
low birth weight and intellectual disability
30
An infant is at high risk for heart defects, blindness, deafness, and IQ disability if their mother is infected with r___
rubella
31
the congenital cytomegalovirus (CMV) occur when CMV (a variety of herpes) is passed from the infected pregnant person to their fetus through the placenta. approximately ___% of newborns are congenitally infected with CMV. the most common sxs of congenital CMV are ___ disability and what 2 kinds of sensory impairments?
1%; intellectual disability and hearing and visual impairments
32
when a pregnant person who is HIV+ takes a combo of 3 or more ART drugs during pregnancy, their chance of transmission to their child may reduce the risk to less than ___%
1% (but without ART chance of transmission during pregnancy is 20-30%)
33
Baumgartner describes the incorporation of an ___ diagnosis as a transformational learning process. Her six phases are: diagnosis, post-diagnosis turning point, immersion, post-immersion turning point, i___ion, and dis___ (which is not a final stage but occurs throughout the other five stages). She reported that the final phase of this process involves incorporating the diagnosis into one's identity and balancing one's status with other life activities, commitments, etc.
Baumgartner describes the incorporation of an HIV/AIDS diagnosis as a transformational learning process...integration, and disclosure [Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). The incorporation of the HIV/AIDS identity into the self over time. Qualitative health research, 17(7), 919-931.]
34
stress for the mother prior to pregnancy cannot have an effect on their baby's fetal development. T/F?
False: the effects of stress may be reduced when the pregnant person has adequate social and personal support prior to and during their pregnancy
35
Since 1981, preterm and low birthweight rates have been consistently higher for ___ American mothers than for white or Hispanic mothers
African American mothers
36
Prader-Willi syndrome is caused by a chromosal ___
chromosal deletion (ID, obesity, food cravings, obsessive-compulsive bhs)
37
Prenatal malnutrition is associated with a number of abnormalities, with severe ___ deficiency during the third trimester being especially detrimental to the developing brain. A lack of ___ acid during prenatal dev can result in spina bifida or other neutral tube deficit
protein deficiency; folic acid (contrast this with teratogens having more of an impact on structural development during the first trimester)
38
the longitudinal study by Werner and colleagues demonstrated that positive outcomes for high-risk babies were more likely when they had...
1) fewer ___ following birth
2) had an easy ___ that fostered communication and consistent eating + sleeping patterns
3) stable caregiver ___
fewer stressors
easy temperament
stable caregiver support
39
A critical period is defined as "the time during which a given behavior is especially susceptible to, and indeed ___, specific ___ influences to develop normally."
requires; influences
40
The symptoms of fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) are mostly irreversible and persist into ___hood
adulthood
41
At birth, the human brain is about 25/35/45% of its adult weight. By the time the child is 2, the brain has reached nearly 60/80/85% of its adult weight. This is largely due to synaptogensis [define this] and the formation of glial cells that aid in ___tion of nerve fibers.
25%; 80%; creation of interconnections between neurons; myelination
42
At what age does the human brain reach its full adult weight? 16, 18, or 20?
16
43
T/F the cerebral cortex is almostly completely developed at birth
F: it is almost completely UNdeveloped
44
Although brain atrophy generally starts around age ___ and accelerates after age ___ (double that), the brain compensates for neuronal loss by forming new ___ connections and neural ___ and by creating new ___ in the hippocampus and possibly elsewhere
30; 60; synaptic connections and neural pathways; creating new neurons (neurogenesis)
45
(major reflexes of the newborn) what is the babinski reflex?
toes fan out and upward when soles of feet stimulated
46
(major reflexes of the newborn) what is the rooting reflex?
turning head inward towards a touch to the cheek
47
(major reflexes of the newborn) what is the moro (startle) reflex?
baby flings their arms and legs outward and then in toward the body after hearing a loud noise or losing physical support suddenly (like a head drop)
48
(major reflexes of the newborn) what is the stepping (walking) reflex?
newborn makes coordinated walking mvmnt when held upright with feet touching a flat surface
49
in studying perception in newborns, techniques like high-amplitude sucking, reaching, and head turning are useful at different stages of development, while ___ and ___ rates are considered useful across a wide range of ages (Salapatek & Cohen, 1987)
heart and respiratory rates
50
Although newborns' vision is very poor, by ___ months their visual acuity is probably very close to that of a normal adult
6 months (Vision is the least well-developed sense at birth. In terms of visual acuity, newborns see at 20 feet what an adult with normal vision sees at 200 feet. The infant's senses develop rapidly in the first few months of life.
Smell and hearing are both fully developed at birth. Taste is less developed than vision at birth.)
51
Within ___- ___ months, babies begin to prefer the sight of their mother's face and sound of her voice
2-3 months (2 for face and 3 for voice)
52
Taddio and colleagues (1997) demonstrated that newborns who were not given anesthesia during circumcision had a [less/more] adverse reaction than those who received anesthesia when given a routine vaccination several months later
more adverse reactions (newborns are sensitive to high pain)
(While some studies have found that early exposure to painful medical procedures increases subsequent sensitivity to pain, research by Taddio and Katz (2005) suggests that this may be true only for full-term infants, as opposed to pre-term infants.)
53
At around ___-___ months, toddlers are typically standing alone and walking with help, and about 1 month later, are taking their first steps alone
10-11 months
54
by age 24 months, about ___% of children are using the toilet during the day
50% (by 36 months they're usually completely toilet trained)
55
T/F: usually within the first 36 months of life, children show a stable preference for their right or left hand
F: usually by about 48 months
56
Early training in ___ skills such as tennis or playing a musical instrument, does appear to improve an individual's proficiency with regard to those skills later in life. However, special training in ___ skills, like walking, does not translate to other skills or milestones, like climbing stairs earlier.
complex; general (or basic)
57
gender differences in motor development become apparent at what general stage of development?
middle childhood (6-12 years) (girls tend to first excel more in skills requiring flexibility, agility, and balance, and boys tend to excel more with strength and gross motor skills, but in adolescence, boys tend to excede girls in most motor abilities)
58
early maturing boys, late maturing boys, and early maturing girls all tend to be at higher risk for what common mental health disorder according to the study materials?
depression (by adulthood, many of the adverse effects of early or late maturation have largely dissipated and late, on time, and early maturers are largely indistinguishable)
59
read: most adults begin to notice some inability to focus on close objects (presbyopia) around age 40 and after age 65, most experience visual changes that interfere with driving, reading, and other daily life aspects
visual changes include loss of visual acuity, reduced depth and color perception, increased light sensitivity, and deficits in visual search, dynamic vision (perceiving details of moving objects), and speed of visual processing
60
Data from the National Survey of Drug Use and Health (USDHHS, 2021) indicate that, among youth ages 12-17, rates of alcohol, tobacco, and illicit drug use have [increased/plateaued/decreased] in recent years
decreased
61
Read: Landau et al. (2007) found that sexually active adults 57-85 reported a frequency of sxl activity similar to the frequency reported in an earlier study of adults 18-59, however the # of older adults identifying themselves as "sexually active" decreased with increasing age.
sexual activity in mid-life and earlier is a good predictor of sxs activity in late adulthood
62
the most common drug of choice for adolescents appears to be...
a. alcohol
b. tobacco
c. methamphetamines
d. cannabis
a. alcohol
in 2020, 8.2% of adolescents reported using alcohol
63
babies prefer visual stimuli with [high/low] contrast
high (and their preference for more complex stimuli increases with age)
64
in terms of hearing, newborns are [only slight/almost entirely] less sensitive to sound intensity than adults
only slightly
65
Older men and women often cite physical health problems in [men/women] as well as a lack of sexual ___ as reasons for not having sex. A relationship exists between ___ and sexual behavior regardless of g___
men; sexual partner; age and sexual bh regardless of gender
(Positive attitudes and having a satisfying relationship are strongly associated with greater frequency of sexual behavior, and psychosexual factors are more strongly related to sexual activity than biological ones)
66
The visual cues an infant uses to perceive depth arise in a predictable sequence: Put these in order [binocular, kinetic, pictoral]
kinetic (seeing 3D shapes move)
binocular (retinal disparity and convergence)
pictorial (2D visual info that informs understanding of shape and distance)
("Keep Babies Pretty")
(preference for faces over other vis stimuli develop before all this by 2-3 months)
67
(Piaget) cog development occurs when a state of disequilibrium brought on by a discrepancy btw/ the person's current understanding of the world and reality is resolved through ___, which entails 2 complementary processes: ___ is the incorporation of new knowledge into existing cognitive schemas, while ___ is the modification of existing schemas to incorporate new knowledge.
adaptation; assimilation; accomodation
68
what were the 4 stages of cog dev by Piaget?
sensorimotor
pre-operational
concrete operational
formal operational
69
Piaget considered his four stages to be highly culturally dependent and varying significantly from person to person. T/F
F: He considered the stages to be invariant and universal (research suggests that the age kids reach each stage vary, and many teens/adults do not necessarily exhibit formal operational thot, esp on novel tasks/situations)
70
Age ranges for Piaget's cog stages:
Sensorimotor - birth to ___
Pre-operational - ___ to ___
Concrete-operational - ___ to 11/12
Formal operational - 11/12+
birth-2
2-7
7-11/12
11/12+
71
Piaget believed that the predominant type of learning during the sensorimotor phase is the result of ___ reactions, which are actions that are performed in order to ___ events that initially occurred by ___
circular reactions; reproduce events that initially occurred by chance
72
Read:
6 substages of sensorimotor
One (Reflexive schemes - birth-1mo) doing reflexes
Two (Prim Circ Rxns - 1-4mos) do pleasurable events w/ own body (thumbsucking)
Three (Secon Circ Rxns 4-8mos) do pleasaurable events w/ other ppl/stuff (use a rattle)
Four (Coordinated Sec Circ Rxns 8-12mos) combines secondary circ rxns (schemes) into complex action sequences (uncover object and hold it) (object permanence)
Five (Tertiary Circ Rxns 12-18mos) deliberately varies an action sequence to discover consequences (drops item from diff heights)
Six (Mental Representat 18-24mos) symbolic/representat thot, which allows to think about absent objects and past events to predict consequences of an act
73
in what Piaget cognitive substage does object permanence (also called the object concept) begin?
Substage 4, Coordinated Secondary Circular Reactions (8-12 months), of sensorimotor stage (also the beginning of symbolic thought)
74
The ___operational stage of Piaget's cog dev model is characterized by ___ (transductive) reasoning, which reflects an incomplete understanding of cause and effect
preoperational; precausal (transductive) reasoning (animism and magical thinking are 2 examples) (transduction is thinking two experiences are linked by cause and effect when they are not)
75
Because of their ___, preoperational children likely struggle to take another's POV as they are unable to separate their perspective from that of others
egocentrism
76
With centration, preoperational children will focus on the most ___ features of objects, and they usually do not understand that actions can be reversed (irreversibility)
noticeable (as such they struggle to conserve and see how changes in one property of an object do not change other properties (e.g. if a liquid is poured into a taller glass they may think that there is now more liquid))
77
in what Piagetian stage are children first able to perform mental operations, which are logical rules for transforming and manipulating information
concrete operational (7-11/12)
78
(Piaget) conservation is the ability to understand that the phys characteristics of an object remains the same even when ___ ___ of the object changes. conservation depends on ___ and ___, with conservation of ___ occurring first, then liquid, length, weight, and then displacement ___.
physical appearance changes; reversibility and decentration; conservation of number first...displacement volume (conservation develops gradually in concrete operational stage)
79
(Piaget) horizontal decalage describes the ___ acquisition of an ___ within a specific stage of dev, meaning that they are not able to immediately apply that __"__ across all contexts in a given stage
gradual acquisition of an ability
80
Elkind's (1984) adolescent egocentrism features included the ___ (belief that one is unique and that natural laws don't apply to them) and the imaginary audience [define]
personal fable; belief that one is always center of attention
81
Read:
Neo-Piagetians combine information processing and Piagetian approaches to cog dev, combining the roles of biological maturation and experience (Piaget) with a focus on changes within specific cog domains and mental rules+strategies and the impact of context in which dev occurs, arguing that unevenness across dev domains/contexts is normal
82
which psychologist proposed the sociocultural theory of cognitive development?
a. Elkind
b. Frued
c. Vygotsky
d. Piaget
c. Vygotsky (1978) (social and cultural factors influence cog dev and all learning is socially mediated)
83
(sociocultural theory, Vygotsky) Learning within the zone of ___ development happens between a child's current level of independent functioning and one level beyond. An adult or older peer can provide ___ing to support learning in a way that often looks like modeling, providing cues, encouraging alternative plans of action, and symbolic play.
zone of proximal development; scaffolding
(the outer limit of Vygotsky's zone of proximal development is defined as what a child can do with the assistance of an adult or more capable peer)
84
Read: While Piaget thought of the tendency for young children to talk aloud to themselves when doing tasks as egocentric...
Vygotsky (sociocul theory) called it self-directed (private) speech that helps kids regulate and organize their behaviors
85
Read: the major changes in theory of mind (ToM) in early childhood
Ages 2-3: kids become aware that others have mental states, including different perceptions, emotions, and desires that influence actions
Ages 4-5: another person's thoughts may be inaccurate and may act on false beliefs
Ages 5+: other peoples' inner worlds and actions may misalign and people interpret situations differently, after adolescence people can have mixed feelings about events and other people
86
When taught rehearsal strategies, young children often [generalize/fail to generalize] these strategies beyond the situation.
fail to generalize (By age 9-10, kids begin to use memory strategies regularly, beginning with rehearsal, followed by organization, and then elaboration. These strategies are fine tuned and used more consciously and strategically in teenhood (Schneider & Pressley, 1997))
87
(cog changes in adulthood and circadian rhythms) for older adults, peak arousal and task performance levels occur in the [morning/evening/both] while younger adults have higher levels of both in the [morning/evening/both].
for older adults peak levels are in the morning, while they are there for younger adults in the evening
88
When adults aged 50+ are asked to recall personal events from their lives, they recall a larger # of recent events [the ___ function] followed by events that occurred in adolescence and early adulthood [the ___ bump]
the retention function; the reminiscence bump
89
Increasing age has a greater negative impact on which of these 2: implicit or explicit memory?
greater impact on explicit than implicit memory
90
Read: older adults exhibit the GREATEST age-related declines in recent long-term (secondary memory) (like remembering a list of words from the day before) followed by working memory...
while remote long-term memory, memory span, and sensory memory are relatively unaffected
91
how are remote long-term memory, memory span, and sensory memory affected by increasing age typically?
how are recent long-term (secondary memory) (like remembering details from a story they read the day before) and working memory typically affected?
the first are generally unaffected while the latter decline (effects on working memory seem to be due primarily to reduced perceptual speed and ability to prevent irrelevant info from entering working memory, and challenges with long-term memory seem to be more about not using effective encoding strats as much as younger adults) (processing efficiency starts to decline in middle age)
92
as we age, which of these 3 types of memory tends to decline more than the others? semantic, episodic, or procedural
episodic
93
which of these language development theorists would say that language is acquired due to biological mechanisms and a universal pattern of language development?
a. nativist
b. behaviorist
c. interactionist
a. nativist (e.g., Chomsky) (theory supported by studies showing that kids master basics of lang between 4-6 regardless of complexities of their lang and that kids of all cultures go thru same stages of lang dev)
94
___ bootstrapping refers to using knowledge of the meaning of a word to infer its syntactical category; while ___ bootstrapping refers to using __"__ knowledge to deduce the meaning of an unfamiliar word
semantic bootstrapping; syntactical boostrapping
(semantic bootstrapping ex: coming to understand that words that refer to objects/people/places are nouns
syntactical bootstrapping ex: inferring a word's meaning based on its grammatical context
Prosodic bootstrapping: using the prosody (pitch, rhythm, etc.) of an utterance to infer syntax.
Morphological bootstrapping: using knowledge about morphemes to infer syntax or meaning, e.g., deducing that a word is an action word (verb) because it ends in "ing.")
95
(speech sounds and lang development) The English language has 45 (1)___, which are the smallest units of sound that are understood in a language. (2)___ are the smallest units of sound that convey meaning and are composed of (1)___. (2)___ include words like "do" and suffixes like "-ed" and they cannot be further divided.
(1) phonemes
(2) morphemes
96
which of the following cries from babies elicits the strongest response (heart rate up, skin conductance)?
a. pain cry
b. irregular cry
c. hunger cry
d. anger cry
a. pain cry
(the most common and successful response of a mother to her infant's cries is to raise and hold the child upright and on their shoulder to provide close phys connection) (a prompt and consistent response to infant crying during the few months of life is associated with less crying in later months and more gestures, facial expressions, and other vocalizations to communicate)
97
Cooing (vowel sounds when a baby is happy) begin at about 6-8 weeks of age, which precedes babbling, consisting of a ___tion of simple consonant+vowel sounds. Between #-## months, babies narrow their repertoire of sounds to those of their native language.
consisting of a repetition; between 9-14 months
(only deaf children with residual hearing make these kinds of early verbalizations in ways that resemble hearing child, and deaf children "babble" with their hands)
98
starting about 9 months of age, kids imitate adult speech sounds and words w/out understanding them [e___] and then later use e___ j___, that is, vocalizations that sounds like sentences but lack meaning
echolalia; expressive jargon
99
between ages 1-2, kids use h___ speech that involves using single words to express whole phrases or ideas, often accompanied by gestures and intonation.
holophrastic speech
100
by about ___ months of age, children understand about 50 words, and by ___ months are speaking about 50 words
13;18 (kids are speaking their first words between 10-15 months and are most often labels for objects, people, or events, but "mama" or "dada" tend to be the very first words)
101
children first exhibit holophrastic speech before they exhibit t___ speech by 18-24 months, when they string 2 or more words together to make sentences
telegraphic speech (by about 27 months, prepositions and nouns are added to roster of nouns, verbs, and adjectives, and children usually know between 300-400 words)
102
During which period do children exhibit the largest and most rapid growth of vocabulary to total about 1000 words?
a. 1-2 years
b. 2-3 years
b. 3-4 years
2-3 years (30-36 months) (using sentences with 3-4 words)
103
a temporary o___ation of grammatical rules is common between 2.5-5 years of age
overgeneralization
104
By age 6-___ children are able to employ metalinguistic awareness to reflect on lang as a communication tool and themselves as users, making use of words in humorous or metaphoric ways
6-7
105
(lang development)
1. Give an example of underextension (using a word to narrowly to objects or situations).
2. Give an example of overextension (using a word for a wider collection of objects or events than is inappropriate)
1. using "dish" to only refer to a the plastic plate he normally uses. using "kitty" to refer to the family cat but not any other feline. Referring to their shoes and only their shoes as "shoozies."
2. using "car" to refer to all vehicles. calling any four-legged animal "doggie." calling any round objects a "ball." Calling any adult man "daddy."
106
Gender differences are present at some ages but not others, with [boys/girls] showing earlier or more substantial development at certain stages in certain measures than their counterparts.
Girls (but there are largely more similarities than differences by gender in lang development and those differences are largely only in the first 5 years of life)
107
Read: early research on bilingualism implied that it led to cognitive deficits, however, later research has demonstrated that bilingual children score better on cognitive and lang skills tests than their monolingual peers.
However, these cognitive benefits have mixed support for how well they maintain into adolescence and adulthood.
108
When language-minority children participate in high-quality bilingual programs, they acquire academic English and knowledge of subject matter [as well as or better/virtually the same/as well as or worse] as those who participate in English-only (immersion) programs
as well as or better
109
Researchers have found that, [by 2 months/by 4 months/at birth], most infants begin to emit a "fussy" or irregular cry.
2 months (they have a hungry cry, pain cry, and angry cry initially)
110
Kagan (1989) showed that behavioral inhibition has a ___ contribution and is relatively [stable/unstable] over time. Children are either inhibited or uninhibited which is related to physio reactivity.
biological contribution; stable over time
(in unfamiliar situations, inhibited children show more physio arousal (which is moderated by warmth+support in parenting), and inhibited kids tend to be socially anxious teens and less-social adults)
111
In Thomas and Chess' model of goodness of fit, behavioral and adjustment outcomes are best for children when parents' caregiving behaviors [influence/ignore/match] their child's temperament
match their child's temperament
112
What Freudian stage of psychosexual development would a [0, 3, 8, and 13] year old be in?
At what stage is the Oedipal conflict meant to be resolved, i.e., when gender role development takes place?
0 - oral (0-1yr)
3 - anal (1-3yrs) or phallic (3-6yrs)
8 - latency (6-12yrs)
13 - genital (12+yrs)
phallic stage
113
Erikson's Theory of Psychosocial Development stages:
- Basic ___ vs. Mis___ (infancy): primary caregiver trust
- Autonomy vs. ___ and Doubt (toddlerhood): autonomy through interactions
- Initiative vs. ___ (early childhood): plan w/out impinging
- I___ vs. Inferiority (school age): mastery around peers
- Identity vs. Role ___ (adolescence): identity among peers
- Intimacy vs. ___ (young adult): loving, intimate bonds
- G___ vs. Stagnation (middle adult): contribute for progeny
- E___ Integrity vs. Despair (late adult): wisdom, "humankind," integrity
- Basic Trust vs. Mistrust (Freud: Oral)
- Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Freud: Anal)
- Initiative vs. Guilt (Freud: Phallic)
- Industry vs. Inferiority (Freud: Latency)
- Identity vs. Role Confusion (Freud: Genital, here and beyond)
- Intimacy vs. Isolation
- Generativity vs. Stagnation
- Ego Integrity vs. Despair
114
What researcher argued that there are four "seasons of a man's life," I.e., infancy through adolescence, early adulthood, middle adulthood, and late adulthood, and that the three transitions between these periods entail particular crises?
Levinson (1986)
115
studies show [large/moderate/negligible] relationship between birth order and intelligence
negligible (first-borns have slightly higher scores)
116
maternal depression has been linked to emotional and behavioral problems for their children, with [short-term/chronic/intermittent] sxs being linked to less positive, sensitive, and engaged mothering and less (+) outcomes. One such negative outcome include p___ non-c___ in children.
chronic dep sxs; passive non-compliance (esp. in toddler hood) (outcomes can include physio signs of distress, passive non-compliance, peer aggression, poorer cog-linguistic functioning, and insecure attachment)
117
Kane and Garber (2004) found that depression in ___s is related to frequent __"__-child conflict and to internalizing+externalizing sxs in kids
father(s)
Ramchandani et al. (2005) found consistent results between paternal postnatal depression and social/bh problems in 3 yr olds
118
between the ages of ___ and ___, humans become self-aware
1 and 2 (second year of life)
119
Acc to Stipek et al. (1990), self-awareness entails ___ self-recognition in mirrors and photos by ~18 months, then self-___ occurs (19-30 mos) using neutral and evaluative terms, then emotional responses to wrongdoing, meaning they react to caregivers' d___
physical self-recognition; self-description; caregivers' disapproval (Stipek et al. argue that the last one is the start of a sense of conscience)
120
(Kohlberg and gender identity development) put these stages in order:
gender constancy
gender identity
gender stability
1. gender identity (2-3, kids recognize they are male/female)
2. gender stability (gender is stable over time into adulthood)
3. gender constancy (7-8, gender constant over situations and presentations)
121
(gender identity) social learning theory predicts that the acquisition of gender ID is the result of a combination of differential r___ and o___ learning (Bandura, 1969; Mischel, 1966)
differential reinforcement and observational learning
122
Read:
Bem's (1981) gender schema theory borrows from social learning and cognitive development, asserting that kids develop "schemas" of masculinity and feminity as a result of sociocultural experience
123
Read: Egan and Perry's (2001) multdimensional model of gender ID consists of 5 components:
1) membership knowledge (what's my ID?)
2) gender typicality (am I similar to others of same ID?)
3) gender contentedness (am I satisfied with my ID?)
4) felt pressure for gender conformity (how much am I pressured to conform to norms?)
5) intergroup bias (how much better is my gender category than that of others?)
124
(gender-related outcomes) (androgyny, femininity, masculinity) For both males and females ___ (combining masc and fem characteristics and preferences) and, to a lesser degree, ___ were associated with higher levels of self-esteem than ___
androgyny; masculinity; femininity
(androgyny also linked to higher life satisfaction, coping, and comfort with one's sexuality)
125
The Expansionist Theory suggests that adults benefit from multiple roles in life that may otherwise be restricted by ___ identity.
gender identity (generally healthier for adults to have expansive roles and not be limited by gender)
126
Read: some studies suggest that kids as young as 6 months exhibit awareness of racial differences and that kids are able to label people in terms of race by 3-4 years
a more sophisticated understanding of race does not develop until about age 10 when kids begin to understand the social connotations of racial differences
127
(Marcia's (1987) adolescent identity statuses)
15 yr old Suzie has not explored any options for school or career and largely feels indifferent about what her life is supposed to be about. Would she be in identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, or achievement?
identity diffusion
128
(Marcia's (1987) adolescent identity statuses)
19 year old Sarah has enjoyed several hobbies, classes, internships, and work studies in her life in addition to studying abroad and enjoying several kinds of relationships. She is confident in her desire to become a working mother and a biologist. Would she be in identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, or achievement?
identity achievement
129
(Marcia's (1987) adolescent identity statuses)
17 yr old Samuel has tried engaging in several clubs at school and even tried a few college classes. He is nervous about starting school next Fall because he has no idea what he wants to study or do with his life, and he feels confused and irritated often. Would he be in identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, or achievement?
identity moratorium
130
(Marcia's (1987) adolescent identity statuses)
16 yr old Syprus has always known they would be a mathmetician and study and live in the college town they grew up in, just like their parents. Syprus primarily focuses on taking advanced math courses and does not explore many other hobbies, interests, or choices in their life. Would they be in identity diffusion, foreclosure, moratorium, or achievement?
identity foreclosure
131
(Marcia's (1987) adolescent identity statuses) which of these are associated with higher exploration of ID? which are associated with higher commitment to ID?
identity diffusion
identity foreclosure
identity achievement
identity moratorium
identity achievement and identity moratorium are associated with higher exploration
identity achievement and identity foreclosure are associated with higher commitment
132
Who proposed that about 11 or 12, girls experience a relational crisis in response to increasing cultural pressure to fit stereotypes about the "perfect good woman"?
Gilligan
(as a result, they disconnect from themselves to maintain connection with others, "lose their voice," and become vulnerable to lower academic achievement, loss of self-esteem, and psychological problems)
133
Anxiety about death seems to be greatest among [young/middle-aged/older] adults
middle-aged
(anxiety about death tends to be lower among better-adjusted people)
134
Read: Around age 7, children develop the cognitive ability to distinguish between what is real and what is pretend in media portrayals.
This includes understanding that the "bad guy" being shot on TV is not truly harmed in real life. Furthermore, they understand that actors are playing roles that are not real people who can be communicated with when watching TV and they learn that ads are there to influence buying around at 8.
135
Read: The authoritarian style has strict rules and high expectations for obedience. Lower academic achievement and aggressive behavior often results from this style.
The neglectful parenting style is cold and uninvolved. It is associated with impulsive behavior and delinquency.
The authoritative parenting style is warm and responsive with high expectations. It is associated with positive behavioral outcomes.
The permissive parenting style is warm and has few rules. It is associated with impulsive behavior and poor relationship skills.
136
Which researcher was responsible for theorizing about contact comfort, I.e., that a baby's attachment is due in part to the pleasant tactile sensation provided by a soft, cuddly parent?
a. Freud
b. Harlow
c. Ainsworth
d. Patterson
b. Harlow
137
It was [Bowlby/Ainsworth] who asserted that as a result of early attachment experiences, kids develop an internal working model, a representation of self and others that influences their future relationships
Bowlby
138
Read: social referencing refers to babies' tendency to look to a caregiver to determine how to respond in new or ambiguous...
situations
starts at 6-7 months (separation anxiety too, which also peaks at 14-18 months then declines gradually) (stranger anxiety is strongest from 8-10 months to age 2)
139
It was [Bowlby/Ainsworth] who first used the strange situation to assess attachment in young kids
Ainsworth
140
Complete both statements:
1. [Maternal/paternal] attachment primarily depends on sensitivity to the infant.
2. [Maternal/paternal] attachment primarily depends on involvement in caregiving activities, esp. vigorous physical play.
1. Maternal
2. Paternal
141
Read: research on prolonged separation from initial attachment figures suggests that kids separated prior to 3 months of age show little to no negative consequences, while those adopted at 9+ months old show moderate to extreme reactions, with age 6-12 months the worst for being institutionalized.
However, children initially raised in institutions are later able to develop close bonds with their adoptive parents if they are adopted by age 6 (Hodges & Tizard, 1989)
142
Read: primary (basic) emotions in kids (interest, sadness, disgust, and distress) emerge soon after birth; by about 6-8 months they show anger, joy, surprise, and fear
at 1-2 years old kids show self-conscious emotions (using soc standards and rules to eval own bh) such as jealousy, empathy, and embarrassment
143
during the first few weeks of life, a newborn begins to cry in response to hearing another infant cry, which is known as emotional ___
emotional contagion
(another example of this is when infants imitate the sad, happy, and angry expressions of their caregivers)
144
T/F: empathy training is effective for kids and adolescents regardless of initial scores on empathy measures
F: empathy training is most effective for individuals with lower initial scores, I.e., that scores can increase more for boys and younger kids than older ones
145
Patterson et al.'s c___ family interaction model proposes that kids initially learn aggressive bh's from their ___ who rarely reinforce ___social bh's, rely on ___ discipline to control their kids' bh, and reward their kids' aggressiveness with a___ and a___ and that, over time, aggressive parent-child interactions escalate
coercive family interaction model; learn from their parents; reinforce prosocial bh's; harsh discipline; with attention and approval
(Their Oregon model of parent management training (PMTO) helps stop this coercive cycle by teaching parents effective parenting skills and providing parents with therapy to help them cope more effectively with stress)
(a social learning approach)
146
Perry and colleagues identified several social-cognitive factors contributing to aggression in kids:
a) self-___ beliefs (aggressive acts easier and inhibition is harder)
b) beliefs re: ___ of bh's
c) re___ or re___ (lacking after doing aggression)
They also tend to see others as more ___ly h___ (the h__"__ attribution bias).
Interventions focus on controlling a___, interpreting social events and intentions a___ly, and empathizing with and taking others' ___.
a) self-efficacy beliefs (aggressive acts easier and inhibition is harder)
b) beliefs re: outcomes of bh's (aggressive acts lead to (+) outcomes like less aversive treatment from others)
c) remorse or regret (lacking after doing aggression)
They also tend to see others as more intentionally hostile (the h__"__ attribution bias)
Interventions focus on controlling anger, interpreting social events and intentions accurately, and empathizing with and taking others' perspectives.
147
At around age ___, according to Piaget children enter the stage of autonomous morality, and according Kohlberg they shift into a stage of conventional morality and then into post conventional morality in late adolescence or adulthood (although most adults don't get to that stage)
age 11
148
T/F: In Piaget's premoral stage of moral development, kids believe that rules are set by authority figures and are not subject to change
F: this describes the heteronomous morality stage (ages 7-10). In the premoral stage (6 and younger), kids have little concern for rules.
149
(Piaget) In heteronomous morality (morality of constraint), kids see rules as unalterable and set by people in charge. They also consider that, when a rule is violated, the severity of the consequences reflect the ___ness of the act in question
wrongness of the act in question
150
(Piaget) in autonomous morality (morality of cooperation), kids view rules as a___ and alterable when the people who are governed by them agree to ___ them. when judging an act, they focus more on the [consequences of the act/intention of the actor]
rules as arbitrary; agree to change them; intention of the actor
151
Piaget thought that very young children's lies are "s____," and consider their lies to be "natural" and harmless
"spontaneous" (or that they are "spontaneous liars")
152
Kohlberg's theory of moral dev:
1) Preconventional morality
a. punishment and obedience orientation (act to avoid ___)
b. instrumental hedonism (act to get ___)
2) Conventional morality
a. "good boy/good girl" orientation (do acts that are ___ by others)
b. law and order orientation (act based on ___ set by authorities)
3) Post conventional morality
a. morality of contract, indiv rights, and democratically accepted laws (do acts that abide by ___ law (can be changed if interfere with ___ rights))
b. morality of indiv principles of conscience (act to abide with ___-applied, ___-chosen ethics)
The relationship between moral judgment and moral action is [strongest/weakest] at the higher stages of moral development.
1) avoid punishment; get rewards
2) liked by others; rules set by authorities
3) democratic law (human rights); universally applied, self-chosen ethics
strongest at the higher stages of moral development (because the higher stages employ more stable and generalizable standards)
153
Gilligan critiqued Kohlberg's original research on moral development, noting that his participants were all ___s. Her 3 level (with 2 transitions) moral development model encompasses concerns for caring, compassion, and responsibility to others, arguing that people progress from care for self, to caring for others, to finally caring for ___ including the self. Research on this model has mixed results, with some studies confirming gender differences begin to appear in early ___ (other saying little gender diffs)
all males; caring for everyone; early adolescence
154
Read: Gottman and colleagues found that the emotionally volatile attack-defend pattern in couples is predictive of earlier divorce and is characterized by escalating negativity, specifically the expression of anger when it involves a combo of criticism, defensiveness, contempt, and stonewalling (the "Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse")
Gottman et al. also found that the emotionally inexpressive pattern in couples is predictive of later divorce and is characterized by suppression of both positive and negative affect, avoiding conflict, self-disclosure, and other forms of emotional engagement
155
(divorce and diminshed capacity to parent) T/F: while custodial mothers may be uncommunicative, impatient, and less warm and loving towards their children (esp. boys), they monitor their kids' activities more closely and are more consistent and more authoritative in terms of punishment.
F: they tend to be uncommunicative, impatient, and less warm and loving towards their children, and they monitor their kids' activities LESS closely and are LESS consistent and more authoritarian in terms of punishment.
156
the effects of divorce on children tend to be most profound during the first [one year/three years/five years] after the divorce
1 year
157
(effects of divorce on kids by age) Kids who are ___s when their parents divorce initially exhibit more problems than ___ kids, probably because they are less able to understand the reasons for their parents' divorce, blame themselves, or fear both parents will leave them
preschoolers; older kids
(6-8 yr olds whose parents divorce exhibit painful memories 10 years later and are afraid of having unsuccessful marriages themselves)
158
define the "sleeper effect" for differences in the effects of divorce on children by gender
boys tend to struggle more with divorce initially, but then girls in their adolescence and adulthood will exhibit more problems
(adolescent adjustment in the context of divorce appears to be affected by both dyadic factors, such as decreased parental intimacy, and broader psychosocial factors, such as decreased parental commitment to education and fewer family resources. [Sun, Y. (2001), Family Environment and Adolescents' WellBeing Before and After Parents' Marital Disruption: A Longitudinal Analysis. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63: 697-713.]) (boys and girls affected equally here)
159
Some experts argue that it is parental ___, rather than divorce, that increases the risk for adverse outcomes for children (Amato, 2010; Amato & Keith, 2011).
A recent meta-analysis of inter-parental __"__, parenting and child adjustment showed that negative ___ing behaviors and __"__al role diffusion were risk factors for poor child adjustment in the context of post-divorce inter-parental __"__.
parental conflict, rather than divorce
A recent meta-analysis of inter-parental conflict, parenting and child adjustment showed that negative parenting behaviors and parental role diffusion were risk factors for poor child adjustment in the context of post-divorce inter-parental conflict. (van Dijk, R., van der Valk, I. E., Dekovi, M., & Branje, S., 2020)
160
Researcher on remarriage suggests that, compared to kids living with 2 bio parents, kids with a bio parent and stepparent have worse outcomes in academics, social relationships, psych health, and physical health. These effects sizes are often [negligible/small/moderate]
small (one study estimated about .17 effect size of difference between groups) (also these outcomes are reduced when controlled for other conditions like family SES, family instability, and kid's preexisting adjustment problems)
161
Research on age and remarriage by Hetherington (1993) indicates that early ___ is a particularly troubling time for it to occur for children, possibly due to their normal developmental challenges. Research on gender and remarriage suggests that ___s tend to do much better with a stepfather than ___s
early adolescence; boys tend to do better than girls with a stepdad
162
Stepdads tend to be more d___ and d___ than their biological parent counterparts
more distant and disengaged
(authoritative parenting style is recommended, as well as warm, involved, and supportive of bio parent's authority)
163
which of the following are true about maternal employment:
-it tends to be associated with greater personal satisfaction for the working mother
-it tends to be associated with fewer sex-role stereotypes and greater independence for kids
-for boys from both lower and higher SES families it is associated with better IQ and achievement test scores
first two are true
for lower SES boys it is associated with better measures of cog dev, but for higher SES boys it is associated with lower IQ and achievement test scores
(The effects of maternal employment on social adjustment seem to be related to gender and SES: Some studies suggest that girls in terms of social adjustment have higher levels of self-esteem and independence when their mothers work outside the home, while boys (especially middle-class boys) may exhibit some problems in social relationships (e.g., they are at higher risk for "acting-out" behaviors))
(Adolescent academic performance is more negatively affected than younger kids. [Goldberg, W.A. et al. (2008). Maternal employment and children's achievement in contest: A meta-analysis of four decades of research. Psychological Bulletin, 134(1), 77-168.])
164
T/F: The effects of high-quality day care on kids' social and cognitive development clearly last several years after its conclusion
F: positive effects tend to disappear by end of 1st grade
165
Data from 2019 on child maltreatment shows that children in the ___ year of life had the highest rate of victimization, that [boys/girls] had higher rates, and that ___ was the most common form of abuse. Moreover, just over 77% of the perpetrators were the ___ of the victim.
first year; girls had higher rates; neglect the most common; parent of the victim
166
Read: Some studies have found no consistent gender differences in the impacts of childhood sexual abuse on kids, but other studies suggest worse outcomes for females.
Outcomes tend to be less severe when the abuse was committed by a stranger vs a family member or other familiar person. Outcomes are more severe when the victim is younger, as well when the perpetrator is older.
167
read: child characteristics related to increased risk for child maltreatment: premature birth, low birth weight, difficult temperament, chronic illness/disability, younger age (<3 highest risk for phys abuse, preteens and teens highest for sxl abuse), gender (girls higher risk for sxl abuse than boys)
parent characteristics: hx of maltreatment as a kid, ETOH/drug abuse, psychopathology, reliance on harsh discipline, unreasonable expectations for the kid, low educat level, being under 30, poor impulse control
family characteristics: poverty, unemployment, soc isolation, marital instability, domestic violence, lack of access to medical care and soc services, crowded living conditions
168
Sibling relationships tend to increase in sibling rivalry in ___ childhood esp. for same gender-siblings who are 1.5-3 yrs apart and whose parents provide ___ discipline.
middle childhood; inconsistent discipline
(sibling behavior is more prosocial earlier in childhood, more conflicted in middle childhood, and more distant and egalitarian in adolescence)
169
Which of these make up Parten's (1932) 3 types of non-social play and which make up their social play?
A. parallel play (mult kids, same toys, no I/A)
B. associative play (mult kids, same toys, I/A's but no shared goals)
C. cooperative play (mult kids, same toys, organized and shared goals)
D. unoccupied play (random movements)
E. onlooker play (watching others play)
F. solitary play (alone play)
A., B., and C. are social; D., E., and F. are non-social
170
Comparing rejected and neglected children in peer settings, things are often worse for children who are actively ___ by their peers, with greater loneliness and peer dissatisfaction and less likelihood of improvements in peer status when they change social groups (Coie & Kupersmidt, 1983)
actively rejected by their peers
171
(Carstensen) An assumption underlying socioemotional selectivity theory is that social goals have 2 primary functions - the acquisition of ___ and the regulation of ____ - it predicts that social goals correspond to perceptions of time left in life as limited or unlimited. As such, older adults perceive time as limited and thus tend to prefer emotionally ___ partners.
acquisition of knowledge and the regulation of emotion; emotionally close partners (while younger adults may prefer more relationships who can provide more knowledge for future-oriented goals and novelty-seeking)
172
T/F: Research shows that parents generally experience an "empty nest syndrome" after their children all leave the home with a decrease in marital satisfaction
F: adults do not usually experience a decline in marital satisfaction after their kids leave the home, in fact, it increases, along with other positive effects. For women, this marital satisfaction increase is related more to quality time with their partner rather than quantity of time together increasing.
173
Peak susceptibility to peer pressure occurs around ages [12-13/14-15/16-17]
14-15
174
the self-fulfilling prophecy in teacher expectations - I.e., the R___ effect - demonstrates that teacher expectations about students' performance can influence ___ outcomes
Rosenthal effect; academic outcomes
175
Read: research indicates that teachers tend to respond differently to boys and girls. Boys generally receive more correction, criticism, praise, and help than girls.
Boys are more often criticized for sloppiness and inattention, while girls for inadequate intellectual performance.
These differences may explain why girls tend to see academic setbacks as a result of lack of ability.
Boys are praised more for ability while girls for effort. "Good" bh in girls is more more taken for granted.
176
T/F: the general positive effects of children going to preschool are about the same as the positive effects of Head Start and other compensatory preschool programs.
F: kids who attend preschool are generally similar to those who stay home in terms of psych, soc, and cog development
compensatory preschool appears to have positive effects on IQ (temporarily), attitudes towards school, high school retention, college attendance, and other success later in life, as well as lower likelihood of being held back a grade or placement in special ed
177
The Montessori method is an approach to education originally developed for children with intellectual disabilities that emphasizes all of the following except
a. child-centered learning
b. experiential learning
c. sense discrimination
d. mixed-age integrated learning
d. mixed-age integrated learning
Montessori provides materials and environment that fit the child's abilities with kids receiving support and guidance from teachers that helps them advance at their own pace
178
Read: While children attending early daycare may be more advanced in academic markers by the time they enter school, externalizing behavior and increased aggressive behavior has been observed in several studies.
For example, increased lang development as well as aggression
179
Read: reflexes in newborns
The Babkin reflex occurs in response to an object being placed against both of an infant's palms (mouth open)
The Darwinian (palmar) reflex occurs in response to placing an object in the infant's hand (grasping)
180
Acc to Piaget, the ___ function is the key feature of the preoperational stage
the semiotic/symbolic function (which refers to the ability to make representations of symbols, objects, or words to stand for something, which occurs in the preoperational stage and extends from ages 2 to 7) (It is also a prerequisite for reversibility in conventional operational)
181
Read:
Researchers use several techniques to study memory in infants including habituation-dishabituation. By three months of age, infants habituate to visual stimuli: they show a decreased response to the second presentation of a stimulus for periods up to 24 hours. This is interpreted as recognition of the stimulus.
182
Read:
Infantile amnesia refers to the inability to recall events that occurred prior to about age 3 or 4. Although early research suggested that infantile amnesia is absolute, subsequent studies indicate that older children, adolescents, and adults are often able to recall some events that took place prior to age 3 or 4.
183
Read:
Auditory localization refers to the ability to orient towards the direction of a sound, which is observed at birth, seems to disappear btw 2-4 months of age, and then reappears and improves during the rest of the first year of life
184
Read: there is evidence that fostering empathy, ex. By helping the kid recognize the consequences of their bh for the target of the aggression, and helping them ID alternative bh's is useful, esp. for younger kids
As opposed to punishing aggression or ignoring it and rewarding alternative prosocial bh's
185
Which options include what the initial vocabulary of a child typically is composed of?
A. action words such as push or fall
B. words w/ social or functional expressions such as hi, bye-bye, or thanks
C. words representing sensations or feelings such as cold
D. names for objects that are permanent, familiar, and usually movable such as dada or blanket
E. objects the child wants like baba
A., B., and D.
(words representing sensations or feelings such as cold are likely to appear later in the child's linguistic development. A child's vocabulary is not exclusive to what they may want.)
186
Read:
Several consistent gender differences in conversation style have been documented. Women are more likely to ask questions during a conversation, and men tend to talk for longer periods of time, interrupt more frequently, and make more eye contact.
187
Read: Surveys have identified a number of demographic characteristics that are associated with risk for divorce, including marrying at a younger age and having a child before marriage or within 7 months of marriage.
Also included: coming from a single parent home, having a lower level of education, cohabitating with the partner prior to marriage, not having a religious affiliation, experiencing rape, and being in a mixed-ethnicitiy relationship
188
Read:
The greater vulnerability of males is fairly consistent throughout the lifespan. For example, more males are stillborn or spontaneously aborted and are subsequently more vulnerable to physical and mental disorders that have been linked to biological factors.
189
Read: Cross-sectional research conducted in the 1960s and 1970s (e.g., Burr, 1970; Rollins and Cameron, 1974) identified a consistent pattern for marital satisfaction over the lifespan. The cross-sectional studies found the lowest reported levels of marital satisfaction (especially among women) during the middle adult years - i.e., among those who had been married for 11 to 30 years. This result was often attributed by the researchers to the presence of adolescents in the family. Note that more recent longitudinal studies have not entirely confirmed the earlier findings (e.g., Vallant and Vallant, 1993).
Subsequent research in later decades suggests either no relationship, a positive relationship, or a negative relationship between marriage satisfaction and time.
190
Newer research found that while predictive accuracy remains the same regardless of other factors, the relationship between authoritativeness and academic achievement in adolescence are still moderated by [age/ethnicity/SES].
moderated by ethnicity (Specifically, the relationship between authoritative parenting and academic achievement is much weaker for African-American adolescents, apparently because they are more strongly influenced by their peers than by their parents. [Steinberg, L. et al. (1992). Authoritative parenting, school involvement, and encouragement to succeed, Child Development, 63, 1266-1281, 1992).])
191
Read: Current theories of gender development
Current theories suggest that there is a dynamic interaction between cognitive development and processes of socialization. [See Martin, C. L., & Ruble, D. N. (2010). Patterns of gender development. Annual review of psychology, 61, 353381.]
192
Adolescent delinquency behavior is more likely among youth who have a history of ___ exposure and ___ ___ conditions
history of trauma exposure and mental health conditions
193
In the Ainsworth Strange Situation, infants with which kinds of attachment were often friendly with the stranger when the mother was present but wary when the mother was absent?
a. secure
b. insecure-ambivalent
c. insecure-avoidant
a. secure attachment
(insecure-ambivalent infants were wary of the stranger regardless of whether their mother was in the room and were not comforted by the stranger
insecure-avoidant infants reacted to the stranger in the same way as they might their mother, if not friendlier)
194
Read: Gross motor milestones:
Gross motor milestones for 2yr olds include climbing up on furniture, walking alone, walking up and down stairs one at a time, and catching a large ball using hands and chest.
Gross motor milestones for 3yr olds include pedaling a tricycle, kicking a stationary ball forward, throwing a ball overhand, going up stairs using alternate feet, and running without falling.
Gross motor milestones for 4yr olds include hopping on one foot, standing on one leg, running to kick a ball, bouncing a ball, and going down stairs using alternate feet.
Gross motor milestones for 5yr olds include riding a scooter or bicycle, jumping rope, hopping on alternate feet, jumping over low obstacles, and catching a ball with both hands and arms bent.
195
In comparison with popular children, unpopular children tend to be which 3?
a. less intelligent
b. less sociable and friendly
c. less cooperative
d. less attractive
a. less intelligent, c. less cooperative, and d. less attractive
196
In the Ainsworth Strange Situation, securely attached infants become ___ when a parent leaves the room, are [rarely/often] comforted by a stranger, and, upon reunion with the parent, seek contact and comfort but gradually return to ___.
upset/crying; rarely comforted by a stranger; gradually return to play
(anxious-ambivalent infants likely react to their mothers and strangers in similar ways - feeling distraught left alone with the stranger but possibly comforted by them and feeling ambivalent about a mother's return
anxious-avoidant infants appear largely indifferent to their mother, whether she is there or not
disorganized infants exhibit fear responses to their mothers, possibly seeming dazed or confused or other disorganized behaviors)
197
Jerome Kagan has related the basic temperament quality of inhibition (degree of approach or withdrawal in new situations) to which of the following?
a. CNS reactivity
b. prenatal development
a. CNS reactivity
(especially in the amygdala and hypothalamus ([See Kagan, J. et al.(1990). The temperamental quality of inhibition and lack of inhibition. In M. Lewis and S. M. Miller (Eds.). Handbook of developmental psychopathology. New York: Plenum Press. (pp. 219-226).]))
EPPP
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