1
Q
What is information processing?
A
Taking in, transforming, storing and retrieving information. Similar to a computer processing data.
2
Q
What are the five main stages of the information processing model? (In Every Sea Rubies Orchestra)
A
- input
- encoding
- storage
- retrieval
- output
3
Q
Describe the input stage of the information processing model.
A
-info enters brain through senses
- eyes and ears detect sensory info to send to brain
4
Q
Describe the encoding stage of the information processing model.
A
-transforming sensory input into a form that the brain can understand
- info converted into a mental code (similar to computer turning info into binary code)
- types of encoding: VASE
5
Q
what are the types of encoding (VASE)?
A
Visual- sorting what something looks like
Acoustic- what something sounds like
Semantic- meaning of info (e.g. a definition)
Elaborative- linking new info to what’s already learnt (helps long term learning)
6
Q
Describe the storage stage of the information processing model.
A
- information kept in the brain and stored for later use
- some memories remain in the STM for about 15-30 seconds
7
Q
What moves info from the STM to the LTM in the information processing model?
A
Rehearsal and repetition
8
Q
What is the retrieval stage of information processing?
A
- recovering stored info when needed
- three different forms (free, cued and recognition)
9
Q
What are the 3 different types of recall and give a little description.
A
-Free recall—remembering without cues (“I remember that definition!”)
-Cued recall—recalling with a hint (“It starts with a G—oh, it’s Grenade!”)
-Recognition—identifying something seen or heard before (e.g. recognising a friend in a photo)
10
Q
What does successful retrieval depend on according to the information processing model?
A
How well the info was encoded and stored
11
Q
What is the output stage of the information processing model?
A
Using retrieved information
12
Q
What is amnesia?
A
A memory disorder where a person loses some of their memories or has difficulty forming new ones.
13
Q
What does hippocampus damage lead to?
A
Anterograde amnesia (can’t form new memories)
14
Q
What does frontal lobe damage lead to?
A
Retrograde amnesia (can’t recall memories)
15
Q
What does cerebellum damage lead to?
A
Procedural memory problems (difficulty with skills and coordination)
16
Q
What is the role of the hippocampus? Where is it located? What memory is it responsible for processing? What system is it part of? What must past through this structure before being transferred to LTM?
A
- memory formation
- temporal lobe
- semantic and autobiographical
- limbic system
- information
17
Q
What are semantic memories?
A
Facts and knowledge
18
Q
What are autobiographical memories?
A
Personal experiences
19
Q
Why can’t people form new LONG TERM memories with antergorade amnesia?
A
Because info can’t pass from long term to short term memory due to hippocampus damage
20
Q
What are declarative memories?
A
The conscious, intentional recall of facts, events, and concepts - can be verbalised and is seperate from procedural memory.
21
Q
What are procedural memories?
A
Responsible for ‘motor’ skills. These are things like walking and riding a bike, which we can do without conscious recall. Therefore there are considered non-declarative memories.
22
Q
What types of memeories can and can’t people with anterograde amnesia form?
A
Can’t form declarative memories (autobiographical and semantic) but can form procedural memories
23
Q
What is the role of the frontal lobe?
A
Planning organising decision making- control centre
Also RETRIEVING stored memories
24
Q
How does frontal lobe damage lead to retrograde amnesia?
A
- distrupts long term access to memories
25
Role of the cerebellum?
-Movement and balance coordination
- procedural memory (as cerebellum helps time and coordinate complex movements to support learning and refinement of motor skills)
26
What is procedural memory?
Involves skills and habits
27
What can damage to cerebellum lead to?
- distrust motor coordination
- difficult to perform previously known tasks and skills (e.g. piano playing)
28
When does forgetting occur?
- when information can’t pass no longer be accessed or recalled from memory storage
29
What are the three reasons for forgetting? (DDR)
- decay
- displacement
-retrieval failure
30
When does decay happen? How does it occur in STM and LTM?
- when we don’t pay attention to info entering sensory store
- or when memory fades over time
- STM: if info not rehearsed within about 15-30s (info fades and becomes unavailable)
- in LTM: when there’s a long delay between learning and recall
31
Why does displacement occur?
- because STM has limited capacity of 6 to 8 items
- new info pushes out old info from STM when it’s full
- displaced info no longer accessible unless it’d been transferred to LTM
32
When does retrieval failure occur?
when information is stored in memory but cannot be accessed because the necessary cues are missing
33
What is a cue?
Trigger that helps recall information
34
What are context cues and state cues?
Two types of cues.
- returning to the same place where a memory was formed to help recall
- being in the same emotional/ physiological state as when the memory was encoded helps recall
35
What is the MSM?
developed by Atkinson and Shiffrin (1972) explains how information flows through three distinct memory stores:
-sensory memory
-short-term memory (STM)
-long-term memory (LTM)
36
What is the linear sequence of information flow in the MSM?
-Input from the environment
-Sensory store
-STM
-LTM
-Retrieval
-Output
37
How is info forgotten in the MSM?
decay or displacement
38
What is sensory memory? Duration? Capacity? Encoding? Forgetting? What next?
- receiver and brief storer of sensory input from environment through five senses
- 0.5 to 2 seconds
- very large since we constantly process multiple sensory inputs
- info encoded by each sense
- decay
- If attention is given, information moves into short-term memory
39
What is the STM (MSM)? Capacity? Duration? Encoding? Maintenance rehearsal? Elborative rehearsal? Forgetting?
- temporary stores info
- average 7 items plus or minus 2
- last around 15 to 30 seconds
- mainly acoustics (sounds of info)
- repeating info keeps active in STM for longer
- displacement when it’s full
40
What is the LTM? duration? Capacity? Encoding? Forgetting?
- stores all rehearsed info or processed deeply
- potentially lifelong
- unlimited capacity
- semantic (meaning based) mainly but can be visual or auditory
- decay or retrieval failure
41
Criticisms of MSM?
- too simplistic. Research shows that STM is more complex and can deal with multiple pieces of sensory info at once
- neuroscientific evidence shows different areas of the brain handle different types of LTM (e.g. hippocampus for episodic memories)
- assumes rehearsal is the only way to transfer info to LTM but emotionally powerful or meaningful events can be remembered without rehearsal.
42
What are episodic memories?
Memories of life events
43
Wilson et al background?
- amnesia syndrome involves memory loss caused by brain damage, illness or psychological trauma (forgetting personal details and distorted memories)
-people with amnesia can remember who they are but rarely severe neurological damage can make people forget who they are
- Clive wearing case investigated
44
Who is Clive wearing?
- suffered anterograde amnesia and retrograde amnesia following viral brain infection
- talented musician
- lost ability to form new memories or recall past but musical abilities remained intact
45
Aim of Clive wearing?
Investigate affects of severe anterograde and retrograde amnesia on memory, consciousness and sense of self through neurophysiological assessments and brain imaging
46
Wilson et al method= type of study? Design? Sample?
- longitudinal case study over 21 years
- combines qualitative (observations and interview) with qualitative (neuropsychological test scores and MRI scans) data
- Clive wearing (herpes lead to severe brain damage)
47
Wilson et al materials?
Neuropsychological tests: IQ tests, verbal fluency, digit span tasks
-MRI scans: Used to locate and monitor brain damage over time
48
Clive wearing procedure?
- STM, LTM memory were tested and MRI scans examinate extent of damage over 21 years
-observed repetitive behaviours such as writing “I am now completely awake” in diary believing he just regained consciousness. But he retained awareness of identity, musical background and marriage.
49
What were MRI findings in Wilson et al?
- significant lasting damage to hippocampal formantions and temporal corticies (linked to memory)
- Damage was greater on the left side, possibly explaining his auditory hallucinations (he believed he could hear his own music)
-Little to no improvement was observed over the two decades of follow-up
50
Results of Clive wearing (Wilson et al)?
- anterigrade and retrograde amnesia
- procedural memory still intact (music career)
- semantic memory partially preserved (understand words and concepts but not recall learning them)
- episodic memory severely damaged
- IQ and verbal reasoning within normal range (below pre illness abilities however)
51
How was Clive wearing psychological state?
- CW lacked autobiographical self-awareness, believing he was constantly “waking up” for the first time
-Experienced auditory hallucinations and occasional delusions about his consciousness
52
Wilson et al conclusions?
- viral brain infection can cause anterograde and retrograde amnesia (neurological damage)
- findings support msm (show distinct stm and LTM stores)
- CW’s intact procedural memory suggests that different types of memory (episodic, semantic, and procedural) are stored in separate brain areas
- hippocampus damage and temporal lobe damage can prevent memory formation
- frontal lobe linked to self awareness and a conscious
53
Wilson et al criticism?
- ethics: psychological distress and fatigue over longitudinal study, he couldn’t give informed consent, test didn’t benefit him
-small sample isn’t generalisable. Can’t assume amnesia cases would present same patterns or symptoms in everyone
- extensive damage made it difficult to pinpoint which brain areas caused specific memory impairments
54
What does reconstructive memory suggest?
our memory is influenced by prior experiences and beliefs, meaning it is not an exact copy of what actually happened (not like a camera). It’s reconstructed through prior experiences, beliefs and expectations.
55
What did Bartlett suggest?
memory is an active process, guided by internal frameworks called schemas
56
What is a schema?
is a mental representation based on previous experience. help us make sense of new information by fitting it into what we already know.
57
What happens if new information doesn’t match schemas?
Distorted memories.
58
What did Bartlet describe memory as?
reconstruction of past reactions or experiences, rather than a literal replay of events.memory is flexible and can change depending on what’s meaningful at time of recall
59
According to reconstructive memory, does recall occur in a coherent order?
- no details are pieced to form a coherent story though
60
What is confabulation? When does it occur?
-Making up details.
- when people fill in gaps in memory with made up details to make a story more complete.
-genuine beliefs
61
Why does confabulation happen?
-because we use parts of other memories or schemas to make a fragmented memory seem whole.
- helps create a more consistent reconstruction of events even if inaccurate
62
What is memory distortion?
when the recall of an event differs from what actually happened.
63
What can manipulate memory?
Leading questions can manipulate memory by suggesting false details
64
What did loftus and palmer suggest?
- asked participants “how fast the cars were going when they SMASHED/ CONTACTED?”
- verb used altered pps reconstructed memories of crash
- post event info and language can shape recall and memory
65
Criticism of reconstructive memory?
- reductionist. Ignores biological processes. Holistic approaches would recongnise memories reliance on multiple interconnected systems not just schemas.
- Bartlett war of ghost studies lacked standardised instructions and controls (EVs may have affected results) - research no valid support for theory
- schemas concept too vague and hypothetical. Can’t be directly measured or seen on brain scans so difficult to study scientifically.
- model makes it hard to predict what people will remember as each persons schemas and experiences are unique. So difficult to test memory.
66
Braun background?
- advertisements use autobiographical advertising to trigger memories and emotions from people’s past to make them feel more positive about product or brand
- nostalgic adverts act as memory cues to recall past experiences, connect positive feelings to brand, possibly form false memories if ad encourages them to imagine event occurring
- if people imagine a childhood event shown in an advert, they may later believe that event actually happened
67
Braun experiment 1 aim?
investigate whether autobiographical advertising can influence or distort people’s childhood memories
68
Braun experiment 1 hypotheses?
- If adverts become part of how memories are reconstructed, elements from the advert will appear in people’s “memories"
- If the advert encourages people to imagine a childhood event, this imagination process will make them believe the event really happened (called advertising inflation)
69
Braun experiment 1 method? Type? IV and DV? Sample?
- Laboratory experiment using an independent measures design
- IV: whether pps saw Disney autobiographical or non Disney control advent
- DV: changes in pps score on the life events inventory that measured beliefs in childhood events
- 107 US uni students (received course credit for taking part)
70
Braun experiment 1 materials?
- LEI: questionnaire with 20 childhood events including “met and shook hands with favourite character at theme resort”
- Disney™ advert (autobiographical – encouraged imagining being a child) and Positive control advert (did not encourage imagining childhood)
- questionares on: attitude towards advert, how emotionally involved they felt, personal memories of Disney
71
Braun experiment 1 procedure?
- week 1: random assignments to conditions, completed LEI and attitude questionnaires, completed distraction task to prevent demand characteristics
- week 2: watched either adverts, imagine themselves in scene and write how they felt, rated ad on attitude and involvement questionnaires, distraction task, finally completed LEI to see if beliefs about childhood experiences changed.
72
Results of Braun experiment 1?
-65% of Disney™ participants recalled or imagined Disney World® memories
-74% said the advert helped them imagine the experience
-63% now wanted to visit Disney World®
-90% of the Disney™ group increased their belief they had “met and shaken hands with a favourite TV character” compared to 47% in the control group
-Inter-rater reliability for memory scoring was 0.83 (very strong)
73
Inter rated reliability?
The consistency between different observers who are recording the same behaviour.
74
Braun experiment 2 aim?
To test whether adverts could create false memories of impossible events
75
Braun experiment 2 method= type? IV and DV? Sample? Materials?
- lab experiment using IMD
- The type of autobiographical advert (meeting Bugs Bunny, meeting Ariel, or a control advert)
-Changes in participants’ beliefs and confidence that the childhood event happened
- 167 psych students from USA (104 female and 63 male)
- three Disney adverts: meetings buggs bunny (impossible), Ariel (impossible) and control add with factual Disney resort info
- modified LEI using 10 point confidence scale
76
Procedure for Braun experiment 2?
Same basic procedure as Experiment 1, except:
both groups saw a Disney™ advert, so researchers could test whether simply seeing the Disney™ name triggered childhood memories
77
Results of Braun experiment 2?
-Autobiographical adverts rated as more involving:
Bugs Bunny: 5.1
Ariel: 4.8
Control: 3.8
-Increase in belief that they had shaken hands with the characters:
Bugs Bunny: 78%
Ariel: 76%
Control: 62%
- pps in the impossible condition developed false stronger memories than control group
78
Braun overall conclusions?
- autobiographical adverts can shape memory and distort
- can create false childhood memories even for impossible things
- supports Bartlett’s reconstructive memory: memory isn’t perfect and can be changed through suggestion, imagination and expectations
79
Braun study criticism?
- age bias for both studies which limits generalisability to other age groups
- manipulating pps memories can lead to psychological harm
- lab is artificial so low ecological validity and also people don’t intensely focus on adverts as intensely in daily life
- participants may have given demand characteristics
80
What techniques are used in advertising?
- cues and repetition
- avoiding overload
- autobiographical advertising
81
What are cues? Two types? Examples? Use in advertising?
- trigger memories and emotions
- cue dependent memory suggest recall is easier when same cues are present at encoding and retrieving
- E.g. an advert showing someone feeling warm and comforted while drinking soup can make consumers associate the product with that same comforting feeling
- verbal cues: slogans, jingles create FAMILIARITY
- non verbal cues: colours and logos TRIGGER BRAND RECALL
- increase likelihood of remembering and choosing products
82
Why do ads use repetition? Why? What can it promote and what is that called?
- repetition to strengthen memory traces and build brand familiarity
-repeated exposure helps transfer information into long-term memory. More likely to recall later
-positive feelings when becoming familiar leads to linking product more: mere exposure effect
83
Why must adds avoid? Why? How to avoid?
- cognitive overload (audience struggles to process or remember key details)
- STM would become overwhelmed and reduce recall
- keep messages simple and focused (use one clear slogan)
84
What does autobiographical adverts use? What does that lead to? What type of memory does it deal with?
- nostalgia and personal memories to create emotional connections
-emotional link encourages consumers to associate the product with positive personal memories, increasing the likelihood of purchase
-episodic memory: product more memorable and meaningful
85
What is neuropsychology? Why was it developed? How can neuropsychologists support diagnosis and plan suitable treatments for brain diseases?
-the study of how the structure and function of the brain relate to behaviour and cognition
-help psychologists understand and measure how brain damage or illness affects memory and other cognitive abilities
-By identifying which parts of the brain are impaired
86
Why was Wechsler memory scale developed?
to measure different types of memory and assess how well each one is functioning
87
What ages can use wechsler memory scale?
16 to 90
88
What are the seven subsets of wechsler memory scale?
-spatial addition
-symbol span
-design memory
-general cognitive screener
-logical memory
-verbal paired associates
-visual reproduction
89
What are the wechsler memory scale results grouped in (5)?
-auditory memory
-visual memory
-visual working memory
-immediate memory,
-delayed memory
90
What does the wechsler memory scales help identify?
whether a person’s memory problems are general or limited to specific types (e.g., visual vs. verbal)
91
Why is Wechsler Memory Scale important?
- helps determine extend of brain damage after injury or illness
- enables clinicians to track recovery or deterioration over time
- supports treatment planning (tailored rehabilitation designing)
- provides valuable data for research into how different brain areas support memory functions
Psychology
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