Memory

Question 1

What is the Multi-Store Model

Answer 1

Question 2

What is the sensory register

Answer 2

The sensory register gathers information from our sense organs, and each sense is coded differently

Duration-
Limited- 1/4- 2 seconds
Capacity-
Very large
Encoding
Sense organs

If we pay attention to the sensory information, it will pass to the Short Term Memory
Forgetting occurs due to decay

Question 3

What is the short term memory

Answer 3

Duration-
18-30 seconds max
Capacity-
Limited- 5-9 items
Encoding-
Acoustic

Maintanence Rehearsal- allows information to be held in the Short Term Memory
Elaborative Rehearsal- transfers information from the Short Term Memory to the Long Term Memory

Forgetting occurs due to displacement and decay

Question 4

What is long term memory

Answer 4

Duration-
A few minutes to a lifetime
Capacity-
Unlimited
Encoding
Semantically

Forgetting occurs due to interference, and retrieval faliure (often due to lack of retrieval cues)

Question 5

What are the Evaluation points for the Multi-store model

Answer 5

Clinical studies
Experimental support
LTM and STM arent unitary stores
Too much emphasis on rehearsal

Question 6

What are the clinical studies (evaluation of the Multi- Store Model)

Answer 6

P- Evidence to support the distinction between STM and LTM includes clinical studies of patients with Korsakoffs syndrome (KS)
E- Chronic alcoholics sometimes develop Korsakoffs because of damage to parts of their brain
E- STM not affected, LTM severely impacted
E- For example, you could carry out a conversation with someone with KS, but they will not be able to remember it.
R- Supports the multi-store model, as it shows a clear distinction between LTM and STM and that each store is seperate

Question 7

What is the experimental support (evaluation of the multi-store model)

Answer 7

P- Experimental support that STM and LTM are seperate stores
E- Glazner and Cunitz study on primancy and recency effects
E- Gave participants a list of words and asked them to remember as many as they could
E- Found that participants are more likely to rememer the first few and the last few than the middle words. Can be explainmed as the first get transferred to LTM through rehearsal, and end words still in STM
R- Supports the multi- store model, as shows that STM and LTM are seperate.

Question 8

What is LTM and STM are not unitary stores (Evaluation of the multi-store model)

Answer 8

P- One issue is the MSM proposes that LTM is a single unitary store, howevever evidence suggests its made of multiple components
E- Tulving
E- He proposed that the LTM is made up of episodic, semantic and procedural memory
E- Clive Wearing- suffered extensive brain damage, and lost his episodic memory (e.g. cannot remember his wedding), but still has use of his procedural memory (e.g. can still play the piano)
R- Suggests there are at least 2 seperate systems of LTM, so criticses the multi store model as its view is too simplistic

Question 9

What is too much emphasis on rehearsal (evaluation of the multi- store model)

Answer 9

P- Multi store model suggestrs rehearsal is the only way to transfer information from the STM to the LTM
E- So the model lacks validity
E- As we do not always need to rehearse infomation to remember it, and there are other things than impact how information is transferred.
E- For example, some things are easier to remember because they are funny, distinctive, or significant, and what is distinctive or significant to one perosn may not be for another
R- Individual differences in human memory influence how information is transferred and is not accounted for by the multi- store model

Question 10

What was the research into the capacity of the Sensory Register

Answer 10

Sperling

**Procedure: **
Flashed a grid of letters onto a screen for 1/20th of a second, and asked participants to recall the letters from one of the rows. Sperling sounded a different tone to decide which row the participant should recall
Findings:
Recall of the indicated row was high, suggesting all the information was there, so the capacity of the SR is quite large

Question 11

What was the research into the duration of the Sensory Register

Answer 11

Treisman

Procedure:
Participants were presented with identical auditory messages to both ears, with a slight delay between each
Findings:
Participants noticed the messages were identical if the delay was 2 seconds or less. Suggesting the SR has a limited duration of 2 seconds

Question 12

What was the research into the coding of the Sensory register

Answer 12

Crowder

Findings
Crowder found the SR only retains information presented visually for a few milliseconds
However, Information presented in auditory form can be retained for 2-3 Seconds
Supports the idea SR is coded in different formats

Question 13

What is the research into the Capacity of the Short term memory

Answer 13

Jacobs

Procedure:
Particicpants were presented with a series of letters or digits that they had to repeat back immediately in the same order. List lenght increased by one until participants consistently made mistakes
Findings:
The average STM span was between 5-9 items. Digits were recalled better than numbers.
Experimental design:
Repeated Measures

Question 14

What was the research into the Duration of the Short Term memory

Answer 14

Peterson and Peterson

Procedure:
Presented nonsense trigrams to participants, and asked them to recall the trigrams after an increasing amount of time. They were prevented from rehearsing the trigrams by counting backwards in 3s from 999.
The % of trigrmas correctly recalled was recorded for each time interval
Findings:
Found that if rehearsal is prevented, then recall is negatively affected, with the maximum duration being around 18-30 Seconds.
Experimental Design:
Repeated Measures design

Question 15

What was the research into the Coding of the Short term memory

Answer 15

Baddely

Procedure:
Presented participants with one of two lists, A- acoustically simialr words (cat, mat sat), and B- acoustically disimilar words (pit, day, cow). And participants were given the list in the wrong order, and had to rearange the words in the correct order.
Findings:
Participants given list A, performed worse, with a recall of 10%
Suggests STM is coded on an acoustic basis
Experimental Design
Independent groups design

Question 16

What was the research into the Capacity of the Long term memory

Answer 16

The capacity of the LTM is assumed to be limitless, as research hasnt been able to prove otherwise

Question 17

What was the research into the Duration of the Long term memory

Answer 17

Bahrick

Procedure:
400 participants between 17-74
Shown photographs and names of old high school classmates and asked to identify them
Findings:
Found 90% of people could remeber their classmates names and faces after 15 years
80% could remember classmates names and 70% of faces after 48 years.
Suggests meaningful memories are long lasting

Question 18

What was the research into the Coding of the Long term memory

Answer 18

Baddeley

Procedure:
Participants were presented with one of two lists, C- semantically similar words (big, huge, tall), and list D- semantically dissimilar words (hot, safe, foul). After 20 minutes, participants were given the list in the wrong order and they had to rearrange the words into the correct order
Findings:
Participants given list C performed worse, with a recall of 55%
Suggesting LTM is coded on a semantic basis

Question 19

What is the working memory model

Answer 19

Baddely and Hitchs working memory model is a model of STM. It suggests that the STM is more complex than the multi-store model said.

Question 20

What is the central executive

Answer 20

Features
Controls the other slave components and decides which component is required for a task
Involved in planning, problem-solving solving and decision-making
Decides what the working memory pays attention to

Capacity
Limited to no storage capacity

Coding
Flexible as each sense is coded differently

Question 21

What is the Phonological loop

Answer 21

Processes acoustic information

Features
Can be sub-divided into
Primary Acoustic Store- Linked to Speech perception. revieves and remembers sounds in the order they were presented
Articulatory Process- Linked to speech production. Prepares sounds using rehearsal

Capacity
Limited capacity (2 Seconds)

Coding
Codes information acoustically

Question 22

What is the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

Answer 22

Processes visual information

Features
Can be sub-divided into
Visual Cache- Stores material about form and colour
Inner Scribe- handles spatial relationships

Capacity
Limited Capacity (3-4 objects)

Coding
Codes information Visually

Question 23

What is the Episodic buffer

Answer 23

Features
Brings together different types of information from the Visuo-Spatial sketchpad adnt he phonological loop
Provides temporary storage of information
Is controlled by the central executive
Plays an important role in retrieving information from the LTM

Capacity
Temporary storage system
Limited capacity of about 4 chunks

Question 24

What were the Evaluation points of WMM

Answer 24

Studies of dual task performance support the existence of the Visio-spatial sketched

Research support from PET scans

Central executive is over simplified

WMM does not account for all types of memory

Question 25

Evaluation of WMM- studies of dual task performance support the existence of Visio spatial sketchpad

Answer 25

P-studies support Visuo spatial sketchpad E- baddely E- pps had more difficulty when doing 2 visual tasks, than visual and verbal. E-both visual tasks compete for the vssp, and exceed the limited capacity, R-supports idea of different components within working memory

Question 26

Evaluation of WMM- Central executive is oversimplified

Answer 26

P- one issue is central executive is oversimplified E- case study of EVR E- EVR performed well on tests requiring reasoning, but had poor decision making after a tumor was removed E- these things suggest CE was intact, and also damaged R- suggest several components of CE rather than one

Question 27

Evaluation of WMM- doesn’t account for all types of memory

Answer 27

P- WMM doesn’t account for all types of memory E- Berz E- doesn’t account for musical memory, as we can listen to instrumental music without imparing performance on other acoustic tasks E- shoudl occupy primary acoustic store, but doesn’t R- suggests WMM doesn’t give complete picture of how memories are processed

Question 28

What is forgetting

Answer 28

Failure to retrieve memories from the long term store

Question 29

What is the interference theory

Answer 29

Forgetting in LTM can occur because of interference, where one set of information competes with another causing them to be confused More likely when information is similar and short time between learning

Question 30

What are the two types of interference

Answer 30

Proactive Previous information competes with new information so new information is forgotten Retroactive Recent information competes with old information so old information is forgotten Retroactive

Question 31

Evaluation points for interference theory

Answer 31

Research support for proactive interference Artificiality Research support for retroactive interference

Question 32

Evaluation of interference theory- research support for proactive interference

Answer 32

P- research support for proactive interference E- Wickens E- 4 trials, nonsense trigrams, 3 were letter based, last number based. E- performance declined in 1-3 but was almost 100% in 4 R- evidence of interference as old information interfered with newer as it was similar to

Question 33

Evaluation of interference theory- Artificiality

Answer 33

P- research criticised for being artificial E- wickens E- lacks mandate realism, as used nonsense trigrams E- research has very little relevance to everyday situations R- ecological validity can be question

Question 34

Evaluation of interference theory- research support for retroactive interference

Answer 34

P-research support for retroactive interference E- baddely and hitch E- rugby players recalled names of opposition teams E- those who played most games had poorest recall R- new information interfered with old causing them to be forgotten

Question 35

What is retrieval failure

Answer 35

People forget information due to sufficient cues

Question 36

What are the two types of retrieval failure

Answer 36

Context dependent forgetting: External cues, like words, places, smells Forgetting more likely to occur when contexts are different from learning to rehearsal State dependant forgetting: Internal cues, like mood, emotional state Forgetting more likely to occur when internal states are different at time of learning and recall

Question 37

Points of Evaluation of retrieval failure

Answer 37

Research support for state dependant forgetting Research for context dependent forgetting Application to real world Retrieval cues do not always work

Question 38

Evaluation of retrieval failure- research support to state dependant forgetting

Answer 38

P- one strength is research to support state dependant forgetting E- Goodwin et al E-participants who learned info drunk, more likely to forget when sober. And recalled better when sober E- internal cues presenr during learning were absent recall R- shows how different internal state can lead to forgetting

Question 39

Evaltuation of retrieval failure- research support for context dependant forgetting

Answer 39

P- one strength is research support for context dependant forgetting E- Godden and Baddely E- study with divers, learned on land or underwater and recalled on both E- those who learnt underwater, were more likely to froget when recalling on land and vise versa R- suggests forgetting occurred due to lack of external cues

Question 40

Evaluation of retrieval failure- retrieval cues do not work

Answer 40

P- limitation of retrieval failure is contexts are actually not very strong irl E- baddeley E- contexts have to be very different for an effect to be seen E- like in godden and baddely study, underwater or or land but in real world environments arent often that different R- validity of this explanation is reduced

Question 41

What is an eyewitness testimony

Answer 41

The evidence provided in court be a person who has witnessed a crime/incident.

Question 42

What is a leading question

Answer 42

A quetion that suggests what answer is desired, or leads the person to a desired answer

Question 43

What was the procedure of Loftus and Palmers study into leading questions

Answer 43

Lab experiment, Independent groups 45 American students shown 7 films of car crashes. After each they were given a questionare with one critical question THey changed the verb in the critical question in the groups, and the pps were asked to estimate speed of the cars.

Question 44

What were the findings of Loftuas and palmers study

Answer 44

Estimated speed was affected by verb used Smashed= highest (40.8mph) Conctacted= lowest (31.8mph)

Question 45

What were the conclusions from Loftus and Palmers study

Answer 45

Language can affect EWT, and can lead to inaccurate accounts. Has implications for the questions used in police interviews of eyewitnesses

Question 46

What are the two explanations to why leading questions affect eye witness testimony

Answer 46

Respoen bias- wording of the question influences the answer they give, not their memeory Substitution explanation- memory has been altered.

Question 47

What is post event discussion

Answer 47

Any information disussed after th event has happened which could influence a persons memory

Question 48

What was the procedure of Gabbert et al's study into post event discussion on EWT

Answer 48

Lab experiment, Paired participants Watched video of the same simulated robbery but from different angles, then discussed what they had seen, then completed a test of recall. Measured the number of incorrect items recalled by the pps as a result of post-event discussion

Question 49

What were the findings of Gabbert et al's study

Answer 49

71% mistakenyl recalled aspects picked up in post event discussion 60% said girl was guilty, despite not seeing her commit a crime 0% of control group made errors

Question 50

What were the conclusions of Gabbert et al

Answer 50

Witnesses go along with each other,, to win social approval, or because they believbe the other is right. Police need to gather information quickly before post event discussion can occur

Question 51

What are the points of evaluation for leading questions

Answer 51

Reliability Contradictory researfch

Question 52

What is reliability (evaluation for leading questions)

Answer 52

P- Many studies have been conducted and found similar results E- Loftus E- used a range or controlled experiments shwoing different edxamples of EWT. E- due to bieng in lab, could control extraneous variables, so the research was easy to replicate. R- Means researchers using identical procedures should produce simialr results

Question 53

What is contradictory research (evaluation for leading questions)

Answer 53

P- One limitation is there is contradictory research E- Yuille and Cutshall E- Found leading questions did not reduce accuracy of recall E- Interviewed witnesses of a real robbery of a gun shop, and found very accurate recall of thecrime, despite bieng given two misleading questions initially. R- Suggests misleading questions may have less influence on the accuracy of eyewitness testimony

Question 54

What is real life application (evaluation of leading questions)

Answer 54

P- Research into leading questions as it has real life application E- Important practical uses for police officers and investigators E- Highlights the need to take care in how they phrase their questions when interviewing eyewitnesses E- to avoid leading questions from distorting the eye witnesses memory R- Can improve how the legal system works and improve the quality of eyewitnesses testimonies

Question 55

What is the yerkes Dodson curve

Answer 55

Shows that there is best recall at medium anxiety, and at high or low anxiety there is poorer recall.

Question 56

What is weapon focus effect

Answer 56

A weapon distracts attention because of the anxiety it creates. So negatively affects the ability to recall details

Question 57

What was the aim and procedure of Johnson and Scotts study into how anxiety affects recall

Answer 57

Aim- To investigate whether high levels of anxiety will affect accuracy of recall Procedure- Two conditions, one with weapon one without, pps asked to sit outside a room where they heard a discussion between two people Low anxiety- Conversation was peaceful, man came out holding pen with grease on hands High anxiety- Conversation more heated, man came out holding knife covered in blood Measured number of correct identifications made of the man from 50 pictures

Question 58

What was the findings and conclusion of Johnson and Scotts study

Answer 58

Found that in low anxiety, 49% identified the man. In high anxiety, 33% identified the man Suggests weapon distracted attention from person holding it, so explains why eyewitnesses sometimes have poor recall.

Question 59

What was the Procedure of Loftus and Burns study into how anxiety affects recall

Answer 59

Participants watched a film of a simulated robbery. Some watched a non violent version, some watched a violent version where a boy was shot in the face

Question 60

What were the findings and conclusions of Loftus and Burns study

Answer 60

Those who watched the non violent condition recalled more details of the crime than those who watched the violent version Higher anxiety affected the memory of the event.

Question 61

What are the points of evaluation of the research into how anxiety affects recall

Answer 61

Reliability Surprise not anxiety Contradictory evidence

Question 62

What is reliability (evaluation of research into how anxiety affects recall)

Answer 62

P- Other studies have similar results E- Loftus and Burns E- Participants were put into groups, and shown either a violent or non violent version of a robbery E- Found that those who watched the non violent could recall significantly more details R- Backs up the idea that higher levels of anxiety, and weapon focus effect leads to worse accuracy of recall

Question 63

What is surprise not anxiety (evaluation of research into how anxiety affects recall)

Answer 63

P- Reduced accuracy of recall casued by weapon focus could be due to surprise not anxiety E- Pickel E- Asked pps to watch a thief enter hairdressing salon carrying scissors, a handgun, a wallet, a raw chicken E-Found eyewitnes testimony was poorer in high surprise conditions(raw chicken) rather than high threat conditions (with the handgun) R- Suggests weapon focus may be due to surprise not anxiety, so questuions the validity of research into anxiety, as may not be measuring effect of anxiety on research

Question 64

What is Contradictory evidence (evaluation of research into how anxiety affects recall)

Answer 64

P- Criticises research as it doesnt reflect real life E- Christianson and Hubinette E- Questioned 110 real witnesses to 22 real bank robberies. E- Found that witnesses who had been threatened in som eway were much more accurate in their recall of details. Those who had been onlookers and less stressed, remebered less. R- People are good at remembering highkly stressful events in real life rather than artitfical surroundings, so casts doubt over the fact that high anxiety affects recall.

Question 65

What are the points for evaluation of resarch into post event discussion

Answer 65

Reliability Lack ecological validity

Question 66

What is Reliability (evluation of research into post event discussion)

Answer 66

P- Reliable evidence demonstrating similar results E- Skagerburg and Wright E- showed two groups slightly different versions of a robbery, one saw a light brown jacket, another saw a dark brown jacket on the culprit E- After viewing pps placed into pairs, and discussed the event. And many reported a medium brown jacket, despite that bieng in neither video R- Shows that post event discusion can lead to memory contamination, and their memories are distorted to match the others view of events

Question 67

What is Lacks ecological validity (evaluation of research into post event discussion)

Answer 67

P- Studies lack ecological validity E- Much of the research uses video clips of crimes in lab settings E- Means pps dont experience real fear shock or stress of a real crime. whcih affects memory. E- Witnesses are more aroused, and more motivated to be accurate so are less influenced by others R- This suggests lab findings may overestimate post event discussion as dont reflect emotional intensity of genuine eyewitness situations

Question 68

What is the cognitive interview

Answer 68

A police technique for interviewing witnesses to a crime, and encourages them to recreate the event using stages, which increases the accuracy of recall

Question 69

What are the 4 techniques of the cognitive interview

Answer 69

Context reinstatement Report everything Recall from changed perspective Recall in reverse order

Question 70

What is context reinstatement

Answer 70

Interviewee returns in their mind to the situation where the event occured Interviewer encourages them to recreate the environment in as muhc dfetail as possible. And asks them to think back to before during and after the eventW

Question 71

Why does context reinstatement wokr

Answer 71

Believed that there is a mental consistency between the actual incidenct and the recreated situation. Contextual and emotional cues help them remember more details about the event

Question 72

What is report everything

Answer 72

Report every detail about the event even if it seems irrelevant

Question 73

Why does report everything work

Answer 73

Trivial details that might seem unimportant may be important, and may trigger other memories.

Question 74

What is recall from changed perspective

Answer 74

Asked to mentally recreate the situation from other poeples perspectives, like from the viewpoint of another witness

Question 75

Why does recall from changed perspective work

Answer 75

Disrupts the effect that schemas hav on our recall, and make the witness think about what actually happeend instead of what they think should happen in a particular situation

Question 76

What is recall in reverse order

Answer 76

Asked to describe the event in reverse order, or start with the most memorable moment and work back

Question 77

Why does recall in reverse order work

Answer 77

Prevents use of schemas Prevents dishonesty as it is much harder to provide and untruthful account if they have to reverse events

Question 78

What are the points for evaluation of the cognitive interview (compared to standard interview)

Answer 78

Research to support the effectiveness of cognitive interview Cognitive interview is not always appropriate Cognitive interview may increase amount of inaccurate information

Question 79

What is the research to support the effectiveness of cognitive interview (evaluation of cognitive interview)

Answer 79

P- Evidence shows cognitive interview to be effective in improving eyewitness acounts E-Geiselman et al E- Shows pps police training vids of violent crimes. 48h later interviewed abnout films using cognitive, standard and hypnosis interviews. E- Found that cognitive interview had most accurate recall, followed by hypnosis then standard R-Strength because it shows cognitive is more effective than standard

Question 80

What is cognitive interview is not always appropriate (evaluation of cognitive interview)

Answer 80

P- One issue is police may sometimes be reluctant to use cognitive interview E- As takes more time and greater ost E- as more time is nbeeded to allow witness to relax, and to be able to use all stages of it. And it also requires special training for interviewers E- Many police forces may not carry out a complete Cognitive interview because of this, and may have to use less effective methods R- Shows how the practical application of pyschology can sometimes be restricted by the economy

Question 81

What is Cognitive interview may increase amount of innacurate information (evaluation of cognitive interview)

Answer 81

P- Research has found that the cognitive interview can increase inaccurate information E- Kohnken et al E- techniques of the cognitive interview aim to incrtease recall of correct info, but may also increase recall of incorrect info E- found 81% increase of correct information, but also a 61% increase of incorrect information compared to standard R- Problem becuase CI might sacrifice quality of eyewitness testimony in favour of quantity of information. Means police need to treat al linformation from CI with caution