Research method

Question 1

What is a laboratory experiment

Answer 1

A experiment carried out in a controlled setting, allowing the researcher to exert a high level of control over the independent variable, and to eliminate or control for extraneous variables.

Question 2

What are the strengths of a lab experiment

Answer 2

More control over variables- as it is easier to control potential extraneous variables in the lab than in the natural environment. This means cause and effect can be established.

Replicability- A lab experiment can be repeated by other researchers to see if they get similar results. Therefore they can conclude that the results are reliable. They also dont need to wait for the same circumstances to occur again, which they would in natural or field experiments

Question 3

What are the limitations of a lab experiment

Answer 3

Artificial- Due to the high levels of control, it can become artificial and different from real life situations. This can make it difficult to generalise the findings to other settings, which means it lacks ecological validity.
Demand characteristics- Participants may try to help the xperimenter or may set out to deliberately affect the results. This happens due to them bieng aware they are taking part in a study

Question 4

What is a field experiment

Answer 4

An experiment carried out in the natural environment of the individuals bieng studied. The participants may not know that they are bieng studied.

Question 5

What are the limitations of a field experiment

Answer 5

Less control- Difficult to control extraneous variables in a field experiment as a result it will be difficult to replicate precisely, so it may be more difficult to establish cause and effect.
More time consuming- Field experiments can take longer, as you need to wait for conditions to occur.

Question 6

What are the strengths of a field experiment

Answer 6

**Improved ecological validity- ** Since the experiment is carried out in the natural environemtn and therefore the findings can be generalised to other real life settings. Therefore it has ecological validity
Reduction in demand characteristics- the participants may be unaware they are taking part in a research study, and so the influence of demand characteristics will be minimised.

Question 7

What is a natural experiment

Answer 7

A experiment where the IV is not directly manipulated, but occurs naturally. It is not controlled by the researchers

Question 8

What are the strengths of natural experiments

Answer 8

Reduction of demand characteristics- as the participants may be unaware they are taking part in a study so the influence of demand characteristics will be limited.
Lack of direct intervention- Since the experimenter doesnt directly intervene, there is more opportunity to develop an insight into real life behaviour

Question 9

What are the limitations of natural experiments

Answer 9

Loss of control- IV isnt directly controlled so the degree of control is less than other types of experiments. This reduces the likelyhood of cause and effect.
Replication is impossible- As the naturally occuring situation may only occur rarely, replication will be nearly impossible, which reduces reliability

Question 10

What is a quasi experiment

Answer 10

An experiment that has an IV that is based on an exisitng difference between people. No one has manipulated this IV it jsut naturally exists. The allocation of participants is out of the control of the researcher. The experimenter doesnt manipulate the IV. Quasi experiments are typically planned out.

Question 11

What are the strenghts of quasi experiments

Answer 11

Replicability- Often carefully planeed and carried out under controlled conditions which means they can be replicated
Useful to make experments- You can make comparisons wehre it is impossible or impractical to manipulate variables

Question 12

What are the limitations of quasi experiments

Answer 12

Extraneous variables- Quasi experiments cannot randomly allocate participants to conditions so there may be extraneous variabels, so we cant establish cause and effect
Demmand characteristics- Often carried out in a lab, so there may be demmand characteristics

Question 13

What is a hypothesis

Answer 13

A precise statement made at the beginning of an investigation about what the researcher expects to happen.

Question 14

What are alternative hypothesis

Answer 14

An alternative hypothesis is used in a study regardless of the research method. Must include an IV and DV, and two co variables

Question 15

What are directional hypothesis

Answer 15

States the direction in which results will go, this is used when previous research suggests a direction

e.g.
Participants remember significantly more words when they study in short bursts rtather than studiying for longer sessions

Question 16

What are non directional hypothesis

Answer 16

States there will be a difference but does not state the expected direction of the outcome. This is used when there has been no previous research, or previous research has found contradicting results

e.g.
There is a significant difference in the number of words recalled by participants who study in short bursts of 10 minutes compared to those who study for longer sessions of one hour.

Question 17

What is a null hypothesis

Answer 17

States there is no difference and the results are due to chance

e.g.
There is no significant difference in the number of words remembered by participants who study in short bursts, compared to those who study in longer sessions

Question 18

What is the independent variable

Answer 18

The variable that is manipulated by the experiment or altered by the characteristics of participants, in order to observe the effect on the dependent variables.

Question 19

What is the dependent variables

Answer 19

The variable that is measured by the experimenter

Question 20

What are extraneous variables

Answer 20

Any variable other than the independent variable that can affect the dpendent variable.

Question 21

What is repeated measures design

Answer 21

The same participants are used in all conditions.

Strengths:
-No individual differences so any difference will be due to experimenters manipulation
-Fewer participants are required

Weaknesses
-Order effects may occur, because pps take part in all conditions.
-Demand characteristics are more likely as participants take part in all conditions so can guess the aim of the study
-Sometimes its not possible to use same material in each condition, and if they are different levels of difficulty it will affect results

Question 22

What is independent groups design

Answer 22

Participants are placed in separate groups, and each group does one condition

Strengths:
-No order effects, as PPs only involved in one condition
-Less chance of demand characteristics, as only take part in one condition
-Same material can be used in all conditions, which will mean all groups can get same level of difficulty

Weaknesses:
-Participant variables, as differences may be caused by the different people not the IV
-More PPs are required

Question 23

What is Matched pairs design

Answer 23

Pairs of PPs are matched on a relevant characteristic, like age. Then they are each randomly allocated to one condition or the other

Strengths:
- Avoids order effects, as they only take part in one condition
-Avoids demand characteristics
-Reduces individual differences as they are matched on relevant characteristics

Weaknesses:
-Difficult to match everything about PPs
- Very time consuming and requires more PPs

Question 24

What are the ways to keep control in expermental methods, and improve internal validity

Answer 24

Random allocation- Allocating PPs to conditions in an unbiased way, to evenly distribute participant characteristics across the conditions. This solves the problem of participant variables

Couterbalancing- Controls for the impact of order effects. Involves making sure each condition comes first or second equally. This ensures order effects are evenly distributed across all conditions.

Randomisation- To use random chance as much as possible when designing the materials, and deciding the order of conditions. Avoids investigator effects.

Standardisation- Ensures all PPs have exactly the same environment, information and experience. This allows the experiment to be replicated.

Control groups- These consist of participants who experience the control condition where the IV isnt present. These results are used as a baseline, to compare other results to

Question 25

How could you improve the reliability of an experiment

Answer 25

Its better to take more than one measurement from each PP and make a mean of the scores. This reduces the impact of anomalous scores

Question 26

How could you improve the external validity of experiments

Answer 26

Ecological validity can be improved by carrying out the experiment in a more natural, real life setting. Population validity can be improved by taking larger, more varied samples

Question 27

What are demand characteristics

Answer 27

Cues in the experimental situation that can make PPs aware of what the research is trying to find out, or how they are expected to behave. This can cause the PPs to change their behaviour by acting in way they think will be helpful/unhelpful to the study, they could act out of character, or display social desireability bias

Question 28

How can you reduce demand characteristics

Answer 28

-Single blind technique- PPs have no idea of the aims of the research, or which experimental group they are in -Use deception, and questions that arent relevant to the actual study, to distract.

Question 29

What are investigator effects

Answer 29

Any unintentional influences of a researchers behaviour or characteristics on the performance of the PPs e.g. Physical characteristics like age or attractiveness Behaviour (verbal- like tone of voice. or Non verbal- like smiling or eye contact) Expectations about how they think the study will go

Question 30

How can you reduce investigator effects

Answer 30

-Use a double blind technique- where both the PPs and the investigator dont know the aim or details of the study - Use standardised instructions to decrease the chance of the investigator showing their expectations

Question 31

What are pilot studies

Answer 31

A small scale trial run of a study which takes place before the real investigation is carried out The aims are: - To check the procedures, materials and scaling work - To allow the researcher to make changes to the design if needed - To improve the quality of research and save time and money They can involve Questionaires and interviews to try out questions and reword or remove any that are confusing

Question 32

What is Random sampling

Answer 32

Where each member of the population has an equal chance of bieng selected Strengths - Less biased Limitations - May not be representative, as the selected sample could be biased anyway - Relies on all of the population bieng able to take part - Needs the researcher to have acess to the whole target population

Question 33

What is systematic sampling

Answer 33

Involves selecting every nth participant from a list, e.g. every 5th person from a list of 50 Strengths - It reduces investigator bias Limitations - May not be representative, as selected sample could be biased anyway - Relies on all of the population bieng able to take part - Needs to have access to the whole target population

Question 34

What is stratified sampling

Answer 34

Subgroups within the population are identified and they are selected in proportion with their occurence (proportion) in the population. Strengths -Avoids investigator bias and also ensures results are representative of the population, and can be generalised. Weaknesses - If all the key features of the population arent identified, the sample may not be representative. - Very time consuming - Needs to have access to the whole target population

Question 35

What is opportunity sampling

Answer 35

Approach anyone in the area who is available, and ask them to participate. Strengths - Easiest method as takes less time to locate your sample Weaknesses - Unlikely to be representative of the target population - Researcher may consciously or unconsciously show bias in the selection#

Question 36

What is volunteer sampling

Answer 36

Advertisements are used to attract PPs, and they volunteer themselves. Often uses an incentive Strengths - Less initial work involved Weaknesses - Sample bias is likely, as only certain types of people are likely to volunteer.

Question 37

What are naturalistic observations

Answer 37

An observation technique where behaviour is observed in its natural context. There is no direct manipulation of variables. This is to show how people behave in natural situations. Strengths: -High ecological validity as PPs are unaware of the observation, so less chance of demand characteristics -Allows people to study behaviour when they cant manipulate the variables. Like people who cant be tested in other ways e.g. babies Weaknesses - Observer bias- Observer may see what he or she expects to see, and different observers may see different things. - Lack of control- no control of the variable therefore replication will be impossible

Question 38

What are controlled observations

Answer 38

When the researcher attempts to control certain variables. This is when the observation is conducted in a lab. Strengths: - Time saving as it is possible to manipulate the situation so you dont have to wait for the situation to happen naturally - Preliminary research- controlled observations are a way to conduct preliminary research to develop new hypothesis for future research Weaknesses: -Lower ecological validity as participants behaviour may change as they know they are taking part in a study, so may not be natural - Observer bias as the observer may see what they expect to see

Question 39

What are covert observations

Answer 39

Participants are unaware they are bieng observed Strengths: High ecological validity as behaviour will be more natural Weaknesses: Ethics can be questioned due to lack of informed consent

Question 40

What are overt observations

Answer 40

Participants know they are bieng observed Strengths: More ethical than covert as they get informed consent Weaknesses: Reduced ecological validity because the PPs know they are bieng watched. Therefore there may be demand characteristics

Question 41

What are Participant observations

Answer 41

The observer becomes part of the group they are studying Strengths: Allows the researcher to get special insight into the behaviour that could only be seen from the inside. Weaknesses: Observer bias

Question 42

What are non participant observations

Answer 42

The researcher remains seperate from the group they are studying Strengths: Observers are more likely to be objective Weaknesses: Data will lack richness compared to the participant observation

Question 43

What are the two types of Sampling procedures

Answer 43

Event sampling- An observer records target behaviour whenever they occur. They record the amount of times a behaviour is observed Strengths - Observers can record a variety of behaviours so behaviours wont be missed. Weaknesses - Can be difficult to accurately record behaviour if too many target behaviours happen at once. Time sampling- Observers record target behaviour at set time points. At these specific times, the observer will tick or mark categories from the behaviours shown. Anything that happens between this time are ignored Strengths - Observer has time to record what they have seen so it is easier to manage Weaknesses - Behaviours that change between time poinhts will be missed, so results might not be representative

Question 44

How can you improve the reliability and validity of observations

Answer 44

Reliability- When more than one observer is used, they should all be trained similarly so they know hwo to record it in a consistent way. Validity- They can improve internal validity by having multiple observers, and averaging data from all observers. They can improve external validity by conducting the observations with varied participants, and if naturalistic or covert observations are used, it will improve ecological validity

Question 45

What are questionaires

Answer 45

A technique using a set of questions, used for asking a large sample of people about their views and behaviours. Questions can be closed or open ended. Strengths: - More truthful responses as PPs will be more willing to express themselves truthfully in a questionnaire rather than a face to face interview, as they can remain anonymous -Simplicity, as they can be carried out with no training, unlike interviews which require the researcher to be trained. Weaknesses: - Problems with the wording of questions, as the way they are worded may affect the responses given. In an interview, the PPs can ask for clarification - Biased samples, as only the people willing to respond will complete the questionaire, meaning the sample may not be representative of the population

Question 46

What are interviews and the two types of them.

Answer 46

Interviews are a face to face situation where the interviewer asks a series of questions to the respondent. These questions can be pre- determined (structured), or created in response to answers (unstructured). Structured interviews- Set of pre-determined questions Strengths: - Replication is possible because standardised questions are used, and answers can be compared and are easier to analyse. - Any misunderstood questions can be explained Weaknesses: - Social desirability bias - Requires skilled personnel Unstructured interviews- Questions created in response to answers Strengths: - Lots of rich data due to open ended questions - Flexibility as they can explore complex issues by altering questions Weaknesses: -Requires skilled personnel, even more than structured as they need to be able to develop questions on the spot - More difficult to analyse due to lack of standardised questions

Question 47

What are closed and open questions

Answer 47

Closed questions- Give simple answers with no expansion. They usually have a fixed number of responses that the respondents will select one from. These produce quantitative data, which is easier to analyse, but often lack depth Open questions- Allow respondents to answer freely. They allow them to develop their answer in depth. These provide qualitative data, but they may be difficult to analyse.

Question 48

What is correlational analysis

Answer 48

An investigation that measures the extent of the relationship between two co variables Correlations can be: Positive- the co variables increase or decrease together Negative- one variable increases, the other decreases Zero correlation- no relationship between the two variables

Question 49

What are the strengths and weaknesses of correlations

Answer 49

Strengths: - Correlations allow researchers to investigate situations that couldnt be done experimentally, where it would be practically or ethically impossible to manipulate the IV - Provides a way to conduct preliminary research as they can indicate trends which can lead to further research Weaknesses - Cannot establish cause and effect, as correlations can only tell us how variables are related but not why. - Third variable problem- there may be other unknown variables that can explain why the co variables are linked.

Question 50

What are the types of data

Answer 50

Quantitative data- numerical data which represents how much, how long or how many. Gathers numerical data. They use closed questions What is Qualitative data- Non numerical data that describes the characteristics of something usually in the form of descriptions, words, meanings. Use unstructured interviews and open ended questions

Question 51

What is primary data

Answer 51

Data that is gathered directly, first hand from the participants, and collected specifically for the purpose of the study. The data is specific to the study, and has not been published before + More control + Authentic and can be higher quality - More time consuming - Often expensive.

Question 52

What is secondary data

Answer 52

Data previously collected by a third party, and is not specifically for the purpose of the study but are used by the researcher. It is data which has been published before. + Less time consuming + Much easier and less expensive - Quality can vary - Less control

Question 53

What is meta analysis

Answer 53

A technique for analysing the findings of multiple studies, which focus on the same research question and methods of research. Uses secondary data. Strengths Reliable conclusions can be drawn, as data is taken from a group of studies Weaknesses Research design in the different studies may vary, which means they arent fully comparable. This means the conclusions arent always valid.

Question 54

What is the mean

Answer 54

The average of the data. Calculated by adding all the values together and dividing by the total number of scores. Used with interval data (exact scores) **Strengths-** - Most sensitive, as all individual values are used - Most representative, as the whole data set is used **Weaknesses-** - Can be misrepresentative if there are extreme outliers

Question 55

What is the median

Answer 55

The central value in a list of ranked values. (if even number, median is the midpoint between 2 values) Used with ordinal data (ranked data) **Strengths-** - Not affected by outliers because only focuses on scores in the middle so best with skewed data **Weaknesses-** - Not as sensitive as mean as not all values are used - Time consuming to organise data in ascending order

Question 56

What is the mode

Answer 56

The most common value in a set of scores. May be two modes, or none. Used with nominal data (categorical data) **Strengths-** - Useful when the data is in categories. **Weaknesses-** - Not as sensitive as others, no numerical values are used. - Not useful with several modes - May not be representative of the whole data set

Question 57

What is the range

Answer 57

Calculated by subtracting the lowest value from the highest value in a data set. Larger range shows values are more variable, due to individual differences. **Strengths-** - Quick and easy to calculate because only uses highest and lowest scores **Weaknesses-** - Affected by outliers - Doesnt show whether data is evenly spread

Question 58

What is standard deviation

Answer 58

Calculated by working out the average distance of each value from the mean A larger SD shows the values are more variable. **Strengths-** - More sensitive and precise than range, due to all values bieng used - Allows for interpretation of individual scores. **Weaknesses-** - More complicated and time consuming - It can be affected by extreme scores

Question 59

What are bar charts

Answer 59

Show data in the form of categories that the researched wants to compare. (e.g. males, females, different colours) Bars must be the same width and separated by a space as data is discrete X axis should be labelled with the categories, Y axis should be labelled with frequency or number of

Question 60

What are Histograms

Answer 60

Show data where both variables follow a numbered scale (e.g. time, height, test score) Bars can be same width in simple histograms, different widths in complex. No space between bars as the data is continuous X axis should be labelled with numbers (or numerical groups), Y axis should be labelled with frequency or number of.

Question 61

What are scattergrams

Answer 61

Display findings of correlational studies X axis and Y axis should be labelled with the co variables A dot and cross is plotted to indicate the value of each co variabel A line of best fit can be drawn but not needed

Question 62

What are tables

Answer 62

Tables are used to summarise raw data and usually include a measure of central tendency and measure of dispersion.

Question 63

What are normal distributions

Answer 63

Appears as a bell- shaped curve Mean, median and mode are all at the midpoint of the graph and the graph is symmetrical around the midpoint. Dispersion of the data both sides of the midpoint are consistent 68.26% will lie within 1 standard deviation of the mean, 95.44% will be within 2 standard deviations. 99.74% are three standard deviatiosn from the mean

Question 64

What are skewed distribution

Answer 64

If the data arent an even distribution on both sides of the mean, the distribution will be skewed. Positively skewed distribution: Most data falling below the mean, so the data is concentrated on the left, with a tail of scores to the right More Low scores than high Mode