1
Q
developmental psych (def)
A
o Scientific study of patterns of change that begin at conception and continue throughout our lives
o Scientific study of how we change physically, emotionally, mentally, socially, morally, etc.
o Scientific study of how we can stay the same
2
Q
research methods (2)
A
Longitudinal:
- Study one single group of people and study them for a long period of time
Cross-sectional:
- Study different groups of people
3
Q
Major questions (5)
A
- Continuity VS stages
- Critical/sensitive periods
- stability vs change (Do the traits/characteristics we display in childhood continue throughout our lifetime)
- impact of early experience
- nature vs. nurture
4
Q
Gestation period
A
- Duration of the pregnancy, from conception to birth
- Consists of 3 different stages
5
Q
1st stage of Gestation period
A
Germinal Stage:
- starts when egg and sperm fuse together to form ZYGOTE
- 10 days - 2 weeks
- zygote is going to divide and multiply exponentially
- zygote begins to travel from the fallopian tube to the uterus - along the way, day 5/6 after conception, the zygote turns into a blastocyte
- cells will form structures in order to support the baby - once the blastocytes reach the uterus, they attempt to attach to the uterine wall
- once the blastocytes attach, this stage is over and the embryonic stage starts
6
Q
Ectopic pregnancy
A
- baby develops in the fallopian tubes
- will eventually die, the pregnancy needs to be terminated because it is dangerous
7
Q
2 types of twins
A
Monozygotic twins:
* 1 single egg, 1 single sperm
* The fertilized egg splits into 2
* 100% genetically similar
* Always: same sex.
Dizygotic twins:
* 2 separate eggs. Each fertilized by a different sperm
* Only 50% genetically similar
* Same sex or different sex
8
Q
2nd stage of Gestation period
A
Embryonic stage:
- EMBRYO
- week 3-8
Placenta:
- Gives the baby oxygen, nutrition, protection, and cleans the waist of the baby
o Protection from bacteria
Explosive growth:
- Development in the womb as well as later on childhood proceeds in 2 ways:
- Nervous system, organs, limbs start to develop
9
Q
3rd stage of the Gestation period
A
Fetal stage:
- FETUS
- week 9 - end
- Further maturation and development
- Preparing baby to live outside the womb
- Bones solidify
- Muscles become stronger
- Explosive growth of the brain
- At its peak, the brain will produce 15 million neurons per hours
- Neurons begin to make connections
- Sulci and gyri will form
10
Q
Sulci and gyri
A
they are the folds in the brain, unique to each person
sulci = grooves
gyri = bumps
11
Q
What period of pregnancy are teratogens the most harmful
A
period of EMBRYO
o It is the period where most bodily structures are being formed
o Many people may not realize they are pregnant
- Teratogens exert seemingly less influence during the period of the zygote
- Less impact on the formation of major bodily structures during the period of the fetus, but may have significant impacts on brain development and cognitive function long-term
12
Q
Effects of alcohol as a teratogen
A
FASD (fetal alcohol spectrum disorder)
- Can damage internal organs, alter physical characteristics, and develop a smooth patch of skin between the nose and upper lip
o Can also cause cognitive impairments - May also be “sleeper effects”
13
Q
effects of thalidomide as a teratogen
A
- Prescription medication that was used during the 1960s to help alleviate the symptoms of morning sickness
- It was commonly prescribed during the period of the embryo, so infants who had been exposed to the drug prenatally were born with shortened or malformed limbs
14
Q
effects of zika virus as a teratogen
A
- Was first associated with microcephaly –> smaller infant head sizes
- Long-term: children experience motor impairments and epilepsy
- Severity of microcephaly was related to everyday behaviour
o Severe case: it was associated with poorer scores on a standardized developmental assessment of cognitive, language, and motor functioning - Was also related to greater seizure severity
15
Q
effects of COVID-19 as a teratogen
A
No reasonable concerns that it would be contracted in the womb
16
Q
methods of studying babies
A
- brain waves
- Sucking response
- Orienting reflex (tend to give new stimuli more attention)
- Habituation (give familiar stimuli less attention
17
Q
Before Piaget
A
- people thought babies were mini adults with less knowledge –> Piaget said children’s minds work DIFFERENTLY
- people thought children were like sponges –> Piaget said children are active learners
18
Q
Schema
A
Mental representation of something or someone
19
Q
Assimilation (schema)
A
Absorb new information into our existing schema without modifying it
20
Q
Accommodation (schema)
A
Create a new schema or change/modify the existing one to absorb the new information
21
Q
Equilibration (schema)
A
Content of our schema and real world match
22
Q
Disequilibration (schema)
A
The content of our schema and real world do not match
We are motivated to restore balance by creating/modifying existing schema OR twisting information to make it fit in the existing schema
23
Q
4 stages of childhood (Piaget)
A
- Sensorymotor stage (0-2 yrs)
- Learn OBJET PERMANENCE
- It tends to occur earlier than he anticipated - Preoperational stage (2-7 yrs)
- ANIMISM (believe inanimate objects are alive)
- Start using symbols
- Literal thinking, don’t understand metaphors
- EGOCENTRISM (think everyone thinks how they think)
- Unable to perform mental operations
- Do not understand conservation (mom comes with haircut = diff person) - Concrete Operational stage (7-12 yrs)
- Can perform mental operations
- Cannot perform abstract mental operations
- Understand CONSERVATION - Formal Operational Stage (12+)
- Our thinking becomes more abstract, more complex
- Will become more theoretical, more hypothetical, and more logical
24
Q
Major transformative principles (conservation)
A
- IDENTITY: understand that essence of an object remains the same despite superficial changes
- COMPENSATION: come to understand that a change in one dimension is upset by a change in another
- INVERSION: understand some actions can be reversed
25
who was lev vigotsky
- cognitive psychologist
- developed sociocultural theory
26
sociocultural theory
VIGOTSKY
- Language is the most important tool for cognitive development
- Children use self-talk
- EGOCENTRIC (out loud)/SILENT INNER (in our mind) SPEECH
- Cognitive development does not occur in a vacuum
- It is rooted in the social and cultural environment of the child
- Zone of proximal development
- Culture is important
27
Zone of proximal development
- Vigotsky considered the child to be an apprentice
- Apprentice needs a mentor
o Someone more knowledgeable to help them along the way
- If they are helped, they are going to thrive cognitively
You help them just above what they cannot do, then once they can do it you BACK OFF
28
when does it become clear that a baby has developed an attachment
7-8 months
- separation anxiety
- stranger anxiety
29
(T/F) Attachment bonds have survival value
T
30
2 things needed for psychological security
- SAFE HAVEN: attachment figure is supposed to be a safe haven, place to go to have our needs met
- SECURE BASE: place from which we go explore the world and come back to
31
secure vs. insecure attachment
- SECURE: baby learns that the world is a safe place, the caregiver is reliable and safe, and that they can get their needs met
- INSECURE: the baby learns that the world is not a safe place, the caregiver is unreliable and unsafe
32
Strange situation (def)
- They bring the baby with their mom to the lab, they usher them to a room full of toys
- At first, they leave the mom and baby together alone
- Stranger comes in and mom leaves
- After some time, stranger leaves, mom comes back
- Researchers observe the interactions
33
4 attachment types for babies
SECURE
- when the mom is in the room, they will explore the room and interact with mom
- When the mom leaves the room they are distressed
- When mom comes back, they are happy to see her and easily comforted by her
- As long as she’s in the room, they go back to exploring and playing
INSECURE RESISTANT
- When the mom is in the room, he tries to stay close to her
- When mom leaves, they are very distressed
- When she comes back, they are very angry at her
INSECURE AVOIDANT
- When mom is in room, he seems to be indifferent to her
- When she leaves, they are not upset
- When she comes back, he is indifferent to her coming back
- He seems to avoid her
INSECURE DISORGANIZED
- They display a mixture of insecure avoidant and insecure resistant behaviours
o May start to go towards her, but stop midway as if they don’t want to be around her
34
Landmarks of puberty
SPERMARCHE (boys)
- First ejaculation
MENARCHE (girls)
- First period
35
Main characteristics linked and associated with emerging adulhood
Identity exploration, instability, self-focus, and exploring possibilities for one’s life
36
Piaget's formal operational stage (4 factors)
entered in adolescence
- IMAGINARY AUDIENCE --> tend to be self-conscious
- PERSONAL FABLE --> uniqueness, and invincible (risk taking)
- ADOLESCENT EGOCENTRISM --> blend of uniqueness and invincibility
- IDEALISM -->become so idealistic we are dissatisfied with ourselves/others
37
Adolescent brain
- reaches full size between 11-14, but will not finish maturing until 25-30
- FRONTAL LOBES are the last area of the brain to mature --> part of executive function of brain
- forms more SYNAPSES
- more MYELIN is laid down --> white matter of brain that is essential for healthy functioning and speeds up info processing
- experiences surge in DOPAMINE in pleasure pathways and prefrontal cortex --> enhances executive functions
- brain gets rid of synapse pathways we aren't using
38
Kholberg's model
3 stages of MORAL development
PRECONVENTIONAL
- pure selfishness
- seeking to reward only oneself
CONVENTIONAL
- guided by expectations/rules of family and laws
POSTCONVENTIONAL
- principles we choose, but are universal ethical principles
39
erikson (adolescence)
Major task of adolescence if the formation of an identity
FORECLOSED IDENTITY
- The path to identity is super clear, super straightforward
- We adopt the identity our parents and people in our lives want for us
PSYCHOSOCIAL MORATORIUM
- Explore a variety of identities but not commit to any of them
IDENTITY ACHIEVEMENT
- We explore a variety of identities and choose one of them, commit to it
40
Theory of motivation
- One major idea: when we realize that we don’t have that much time left on this planet, either because we are elderly or young with a terminal illness --> our focus will shift, our goals will shift, and priorities will shift
- We become more motivated to pursue meaningful experiences
41
adult attachment styles (3)
o Secure or autonomous (securely attached)
- React to relationships in an even and positive manner
- They are comfortable and confident in their ability to become emotionally close to others
- Enjoy a balance of closeness and independence in their relationships
o Anxious or preoccupied (insecure-resistant)
- Feel uncomfortable with independence and strive for constant intimacy and closeness in their intimate relationships
- Have high levels of relationship needs
- Report that they are often unable to find romantic partners willing to react similarly
o Avoidance or dismissive (avoidant attachment)
- Perfectly comfortable without close emotional relationships
- Tend to believe that close relationships will compromise their independence and often avoid such relationships all together
42
Alzheimer's
- It starts deep in our brain and then moves gradually all the way up to the cortex, causing damage and destruction along the way
- One of the first neurons to be destroyed are the acetylcholine producing neurons
- Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter that is linked to elarning, memory, etc.
- Form plaques outside of the neuron, choke neuron to death
43
what part of the brain ages first
frontal lobes
44
Aristotle and intelligence
THEORETICAL WISDOM
- Acquiring a large body of knowledge in different fields
PRACTICAL WISDOM
- Being able to effectively navigate life, its problems, challenges
Self-enhancement bias: tendency for the majority of us to feel and think that we’re better than average
Knowledge illusion: tendency to feel like we know more than we do
45
Factor analysis
- A sophisticated statistical technique
- Researchers use it to identify common factors that underlie test items
46
Spearman
Cocreater if FACTOR ANALYSIS
s:
- Human beings do display a variety of abilities
o All of these abilities have one common factor that underlies them (g)
g (general intelligence):
- Underlies all of our abilities
- As a result, when we do well on one ability, we are likely to do well on other abilities
o General intelligence: Higher order
o Lower order
- Verbal reasoning
- quantitative reasoning
- abstract reasoning
- short term memory
47
Thurstone
used factor analysis to answer same question as Spearman
concluded there is NO G, there are multiple intelligences
- word fluency
- verbal comprehension
- numeric abilities
- spacial visualization
- memory
- perceptual speed
- reasoning
48
Raymond Cattell
acknowledged existence of G --> more complex, consists of 2 comp
CRYSTALIZED INTELLIGENCE (GC)
- Our whole body of knowledge that we have acquired to this point
- Increases with age
FLUID INTELLIGENCE
- The raw reasoning power of the brain
- We use it to process information and detect patterns, to connect the dots
- Peaks in young adulthood and starts gradually decreasing after that, up to age 75
o And then sharply after 85
49
Gardner
refuses existence of g, we have multiple intelligences separate from each other
--> used logic, including savants and prodigies
- linguistic
- logic-mathematical
- musical
- bodily kinesthetic
- spatial
- interpersonal
- intrapersonal
- naturalist
50
sternberg
said there is more to intelligence than g --> consists of 3 interconnected intelligences
ANALYTICAL
CREATIVE
PRACTICAL
need all 3
51
4 domains of EQ
o SELF AWARENESS --> knowing what and why we’re feeling
o SELF MANAGEMENT --> handling distressing emotions in an effective way
o EMPATHY --> knowing what someone else is feeling
o Putting it all together in skilled relationship
52
Galton
tried to equate physical measure of body with mental measurement
BUT made great strides in statistics
founded NORMAL DISTRIBUTION, SD
53
Binet and Simon's Intelligence test
- Developed tests that reflected 3 basic abilities: direction, adaptation, criticism
- Binet realized intelligence developed with age --> created a scale
- Performance was measured by how many of the tests a child could successfully complete
54
Stanford-Binet Test
- First written measure of intelligence
- Originally written in French
- IQ = (mental age/chronological age) X 100
55
Weschler's Intelligence test
used DEVIATION IQ
- found intelligence would level off at 16
o We artificially set the average IQ to 100
o We artificially set the SD to be 15 points
* Allow for assessment of “narrow” abilities on specific types of tests, “broad” abilities (ex. Fluid intelligence), and “general” intelligence
o Stratum I,II,III
56
is IQ heritable
Studies suggest that IQ is 50 to 80%. heritable
57
IQ is linked to which chromosome
X chromosome
--> may explain why men are more vulnerable to intellectual disabilities than women
58
flynn effect
IQ has been rising over the years (3 points per decade)
- fluid intelligence was rising
59
D2R2
The belief that nature and nurture affect our intelligence
60
Overall and on average, are there differences in IQ between men and women?
Found almost no difference in intelligence between sexes, but they do not perform the same on all tests
61
On IQ tests, where do men and women excel respectively
MEN: visuospatial tasks
WOMEN: verbal tasks
62
Why is it erroneous to conclude that men are smarter than women in math
- Any gender difference in math skills is significantly declining as female students receive similar levels of math education as male students
- The stereotype threat likely affects gender differences in math skills
- Selection effects --> data shows that male students with low levels of math abilities are excluded from the samples because they drop out of higher school
63
Misuse of IQ test
SOCIAL DARWINISM
- If someone is poor and doesn’t have social status, it’s because they’re genetically inferior
- They proposed that the government should not interfere and help the poor and physically challenged
- Only genetically superior people will survive
64
3 elements of personality
UNIQUENESS: The typical way we feel, think, and behave is unique to us
CONSISTENCY: We tend to think, behave and feel in these typical ways over time and across situations
EXPLANATION: people tend to use personality traits to explain behaviors
65
Freud (3 parts of the mind)
CONSCIOUS: what you are aware of rn
PRECONSCIOUS: can be easily accessed anytime we need, nothing is hidden
UNCONSCIOUS: information hidden from us, but influences the way we act and think
66
Freud methods to access unconscious mind
FREE ASSOCIATION
technique of psychoanalysis where client is encouraged to freely share thoughts, words and anything else that comes to mind in order to gain insight into their unconscious thoughts
MANIFEST CONTENT
what the dreamer remembers, the disguised content
LATENT CONTENT
expression of the unconscious mind and a reflection of a person’s true feelings, needs, and desires
67
3 residents of the mind (FREUD)
ID
- unconscious mind
- responsible for basic needs, instant gratification
- aggressive
EGO
- mostly conscious, but across all levels of consciousness
- REALITY principle
- mediate id and superego
SUPEREGO
- all levels of consciousness
- MORAL code
68
types of anxiety (3)
REALITY ANXIETY
informs the EGO of real danger
MORAL ANXIETY
notifies the SUPEREGO that the ego is considering violating a moral code
NEUROTIC ANXIETY
warns the EGO of the threatening expression of ID impulses at the level of conscious awareness
69
defence mechanisms
o REPRESSION: forcing distressing or unacceptable memories, thoughts, and feelings into the subconscious
o REACTION FORMATION: unacceptable thoughts and desires in the unconscious being expressed as their opposite in consciousness
o PROJECTION: attributing one’s own unacceptable thoughts, feelings, and impulses and motives to others
o REGRESSION: reacting to a threatening situation with a response characteristic of an earlier stage of development
o SUBLIMATION: transforming inappropriate impulses and motives into socially acceptable and even valuable expressions
o DENIAL: consciously refusing to perceive and believe painful facts or situations exist
o RATIONALIZATION: creating an acceptable explanation to replace a true but threatening cause of behavior
o DISPLACEMENT: shifting the expression of an unwanted impulse from a threatening person to a less threatening one
70
Freud psychosexual stages
* ORAL STAGE: associated with weaning from breast- or bottle feeding
o Birth – 2 years
o Healthy: learning that although distress is created when needs may not be met immediately, eventually they will be met in a consistent manner
--> Develop willingness to delay gratification
o Unhealthy: overindulgence in oral-related activities when stressed
--> Ex. Overeating, excessive drinking, yelling at others
* ANAL STAGE: associated with toilet training
o 2-3 years
o Healthy: achievement of pleasure associated with release of such bodily tension is restricted to specific locations (toilet)
--> When seeking pleasure there is a right time and place
o Unhealthy: difficulties interacting with others in a civil society due to tendency to behave inappropriately
--> Making mess of things at work, saying something inappropriate in public, being overly concerned with order and neatness
* PHALLIC STAGE: associated with competition with same-sex parent for affection of opposite-sex parent
o 3-6 years
o Oedipal complex for boys, electra complex for girls
o Healthy: acquire understanding of appropriate sex-role behavioural patterns and to develop a superego by incorporating values of society expressed by parents
--> Get along with those more powerful than them
o Unhealthy: experience problems dealing with individuals and agencies in a position of power
--> Expressing oppositional behavioral patterns when dealing with supervisors at work, law enforcement personnel, and government officials
* LATENCY PERIOD: associated with practicing emerging sex-role behaviours during interaction with same-sex partners
o 7-11 years
o Healthy: acquire knowledge necessary to execute complex sex-role behaviours effectively is easier with others who are similar
--> Good to know you are not alone during difficult times of transition
o Unhealthy: exhibiting extreme sex-role stereotypical behaviour and attitudes and/or developing an excessive amount of comfort being around others who think and act in a similar way while failing to consider those who are different
--> Make sexist/racist comments about others while interacting with those who behave the same way
--> Fear of being rejected
* GENITAL STAGE: associated with expression of emotional feelings and establishing meaningful relationships with members of the opposite sex
o 11-adulthood
o Healthy: offering expressions of affection with the hope of receiving such expressions in turn as the basis of healthy relationships
--> To get pleasure you must give pleasure
o Unhealthy: being unable to form loving and intimate relationships in adulthood due to an inability to provide comfort and support to others
--> Only thinking of one’s personal needs
--> Experiences sense of loneliness and isolation due to a series of failed intimate relations that stem from selfishness
71
Adler
- we start life with strong sense of INFERIORITY
- spend the rest of our lives striving for SUPERIORITY
- must also strive for G --> helping others reach superiority
72
The uniqueness of one’s personality in Adler’s theory is based on what
The selection of specific strategies used when striving for superiority
73
The consistency of one’s personality in Adler’s theory is based on what
The extent to which the specific strategies used are selected in a similar manner over time across situations
74
Jung
unconscious mind consists of 2 major layers --> PERSONAL, COLLECTIVE
ARCHETYPES: memories, beliefs, images, that are in our collective unconscious
- Animus: Masculine side that is in every woman
- Anima: Feminine side that is in every man
- Persona: The social mask we put on
- Shadow: What we consider to be our dark side
- Self: the totality of who we are
75
Horney
credited for founding feminine psychology and inspiring the women's liberation
WARM = confident
ABUSIVE
Basic hostility, basic anxiety = fear of rejection
COPING STRATEGIES
Move towards: Overly dependent on the love and approval of others
Move against: I am going to hurt you before you hurt me
Move away: Disconnect emotionally, going to focus on building self-independence and self-reliance
76
Rogers
Self-concept, self-esteem, ideal self, real self
UNCONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
Unfolds: Our unique human potential is going to begin to unfold
Self-concept: Our self-concept will be positive
Match:The gap between ideal self and real self is either non-existent or very tiny
Self-esteem: will be high and healthy
CONDITIONAL POSITIVE REGARD
Impeded: development of our unique potential will be impeded
Self-concept: self-concept will be negative
Gap: there will be a big gap between ideal self and real self
Self-esteem: our self esteem will be low
77
Mischel
Delay of gratification is an essential component of personality
- Those who delayed gratification had high levels of activity in their PREFRONTAL CORTEX
- The adults who at 4 did not delay gratification had high levels of activity in their VENTRAL STRIATUM --> linked and associated with pleasure, addiction
78
Bandura
Personality is a result of complex interaction between a number of different factors, including POWER OF SITUATION
OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
We observe the social world around us to see what behaviours are rewarded by the social world and what behaviours are punished
SELF SYSTEM
At the heart of personality and will allow us to manage ourselves and regulate
SELF EFFICACY
Strong belief that “I can do it” in spite of failures and challenges
79
Rotter
A central aspect of personality is locus of control
INTERNAL = i can do it
EXTERNAL = i can't do it
LEARNED HELPLESSNESS: when we are repeatedly faced with a situation that is aversive and uncontrollable, they are likely to develop learned helplessness
80
What happens when our internal locus of control is over exaggerated
Can create unrealistic expectations and feelings of disappointment when your efforts do not produce the desired outcomes
81
evolutionary perspective of personality
The main goal of every single organism on this planet is to survive and reproduce
--> - Any trait that helps our ancestors survive and reproduce
Life is very complex, survival required several different skills
o We need a variety of traits in people
82
Give examples of traits linked to survival and clarify how they do so
o Conscientiousness: makes individuals more likely to engage in health-promoting behaviours and avoid risks
o Optimism: makes individuals more likely to have fewer symptoms and a quicker recovery when dealing with medical concerns
83
List 2 traits that the book characterizes as less conducive to survival
o Hostile Type A personality: tend to supress feelings of emotional distress, which increases the effects of these emotions on their overall health
--> Leads to abuse of tobacco, alcohol, drugs
o Neuroticism: tend to be overly moody, unstable, ancious
--> Lead to a general state of hyperarousal and tension
84
Behaviour genetics perspective on personality
study HERITABILITY
TWIN and ADOPTION studies
- Results suggest that personality has a strong genetic component
psy1102
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