1
Q
Germinal period
A
1-2 weeks
2
Q
Embryonic period
A
3-8 weeks
3
Q
Fetal period
A
9-40 weeks
4
Q
22 weeks
A
viable period - can survive outside of the womb
5
Q
Cephalocaudal development
A
growth from head to tail
6
Q
Proximodistal development
A
growth from inner outwards (extremities develop last)
7
Q
Three layers of embryo
A
Endoderm, Mesoderm, Ectoderm
8
Q
Endoderm
A
Becomes digestive tract and lungs
9
Q
Mesoderm
A
Becomes muscles and skeletons and few organs
10
Q
Ectoderm
A
turns into the nervous system and some skin
11
Q
neural tube
A
basis of CNS, becomes fore, mid, and hindbrain, and spinal cord
filled with cerebrospinal fluid and forms ventricular system
12
Q
neural crest
A
becomes the PNS
13
Q
What happens at 20 days to the ectoderm?
A
neural plate turns into a groove and later on closes to become the neural tube
14
Q
Anecephaly
A
neural tube doesn’t close in the anterior part causing degeneration of forebrain and skull (fatal)
15
Q
Spina bifida
A
neural tube doesn’t close in the posterior part causing gap in vertebrae
16
Q
Spina bifida Occulta
A
not fatal, can live life without knowing there is a gap in vertebrae
17
Q
Spina bifida meningocele
A
fluid forms in the sac from the gap and damages spinal cord
needs surgery right after birth
18
Q
Myelomeningocele
A
sac of fluid that damages the spinal cord in spina bifida
19
Q
Neural tube should close properly by
A
22 days
20
Q
Neurogenesis
A
birth of new neurons (forms ventricular zone)
mostly happens during prenatal development but can also happen in adulthood
21
Q
Cell migration
A
cells move out of the ventricular zone towards other areas to create a population of neurons
22
Q
Cell differentiation
A
depending on the genes, cells will start to look different depending where they are
synapses do not form
23
Q
synaptogenesis
A
synaptic connections are being formed while dendrites and axons are developing
we have too many synapses
24
Q
Humans are unique among primates because
A
We have dramatic growth after birth (partly due to synaptogenesis)
25
Cell death
a programmed cell shut down to get rid of excess neurons/cells
cells fight for neurotrophic factors
26
apoptosis
selective death of manu neurons
27
neurotrophic factors
nourishment for the cell
limited, causing cells to fight for it
cells that don't get enough will die
28
Synapse rearrangement
loss of excess synapses (pruning)
happens throughout our life causing certain areas to decline at different times
29
critical period
small window of time when a certain developing area is vulnerable to teratogens - can be permanent
30
critical period for language learning
7 years
31
what change happens with sound discrimination with babies at 10 months
lose their ability to hear sounds that don't exist in their environment - preference to sounds from their own language
32
Pathway from eye to brain
eye
photoreceptors absorb light and create neural signal
optic nerve
thalamus
primary visual cortex
33
why is PVC also called striate cortex
because of it's striped appearance
both eyes send information to both hemispheres and are organized with stripes at thalamus and PVC
34
at which level of visual processing is a stiped pattern seen?
thalamus and visual cortex
35
ocular dominance columns
Alternating stripes of neurons in V1 that prefer input from one eye.
36
Monocular deprivation
preventing sight from one eye
37
Binocular deprivation
preventing sight from both eyes results in loss of dendritic spines
38
what did hubel and wiesel study in cats?
deprived sight in cats to find critical periods of vision
39
why were cats used for experiments?
visual system is similar to humans and their brain weight also increases after birth
40
what is the period of synaptogenesis in cats?
P10-P40 postnatal days 10-40
41
what happens if a cats vision is altered during p10-p40?
it can permanently impair their vision since it's a critical period
42
what happens to the deprived eye during monocular deprivation
branches of functioning eye outcompete deprived eye leading to weaker synapses and fewer dendrited in the deprived eye
43
how does hebbian synapses explain visual deprivation?
synapses that don't fire weaken and are lost allowing the stronger connections to dominate
44
how does monocular deprivation affect ocular dominance columns
winner takes all environment - neurons are only responding to the eye that is giving input causing the dominant eye to take over cortical areas
45
what is shown by ocular dominance histograms?
shows the imbalance of neurons responding to each eye due to deprivation
46
what happens if deprivation occurs outside of the critical period?
deprivation has less permanent effects
47
amblyopia and treatment
lazy eye, eye patch treatment
48
strabismus and treatment
abnormal alignment of eye
treatment - surgery and patch
49
what is happening in the eye with strabismus
inputs from each eye is different causing confusion, brain will pick a "winner" to take information from and disregard other eye's info
50
Genotype
genetic makeup of an organism
specific set of genes someone carries
51
Phenotype
a persons observable/physical characteristics (eye colour)
52
Genetics
study of hereditary - how qualities and traits are passed down (like a typed script)
53
epigenetics
studying modifications of gene expression (like editing a script)
54
histone modification
changing how dna is packaged - determines which genes are on/off
can happen on an ongoing process (reversible)
55
dna methylation
permanently silencing certain genes (nonreversible)
56
how do twins differ in gene expression?
they can have the same dna but their different experiences will cause different genes to be expressed or not
57
cross-fostering
done in experiments, when an albino baby is put in care of a black six mom and vise versa
58
experiment 1: description
pups were cross-fostered vs put with their own type
anxiety levels differed
59
exp 1: results
gene expression was different due to different environments
pups that were put with their type of mother had best results (would act as their type)
60
exp 2: description
high licking and grooming parent type vs low LG parenting type
61
results for high LG parenting
GR receptor was expressed normally - pups could deal with stress, low anxiety
became high LG parents
62
results for Low LG parenting
causes methylation of GR (turns off expression for stress hormone receptor gene)
high anxiety and became low LG parents
63
what happens when the glucocorticoid receptor gene is methylated?
it decreases expression for stress hormone receptor genes
64
which people is the methylation of GR seen in
people with a genetic history of high anxiety/stress, suicide, mental issues
65
what increases as we age?
ventricular volume - usually around mid adulthood
66
what happens when ventricular volume increases?
space in ventricles and between gyri increase causing more noticeable spaces in scans - loss os tissue
67
hallmark for parkinsons disease
lewy bodies - protein clumps that prevent communication and cause nerve cell death and cognitive decline
68
hallmark for alzheimer's
amyloid plaques - sticky clumps that interrupts cell-cell communication and causes cell death
69
signs of preclinical decline
symptoms are slight and not detectable by doctors - changes are not detectable on tests
70
MCI signs of decline
cognitive changes are concerning to family
71
dementia
can differ in severity - interferes with ability to perform everyday tasks
72
alzheimer's disease
irreversible neurodegenerative disease, form of dementia
73
risk factors for AD
old age (65+)
females > males
genes that cause familial AD
having other diseases
74
sensation
stimulation of any sensory organ (sight, smell, taste)
75
Receptor cells
sensory organs that allow us to have sensation
they are each specific for a certain kind of stimulus
76
perception
organization and interpretation of sensory input
ex) seeing a slide and understanding the words
77
smell receptor cells
olfactory - upper nasal cavity
78
touch receptors
somatosensorial - free nerve endings in skin
79
taste receptors
gustation - interacts with chemicals in food through taste buds in tongue
80
hearing receptors
audition - sound waves interact with hair cells of Corti in inner ear
81
vision receptors
light waves interact with photoreceptors in retina
82
labeled line
every sensory system has it's own unique pathway to the brain
can have subsections - pain vs vibration vs pressure all have different lines
83
specialization
each sense has a unique pathway and its own primary cortex
84
all senses pass through...
thalamus - despite having different pathways
85
association cortex
part of the cerebral cortex that is in charge of higher cognitive functions and perception (planning, judgement)
higher level of processing
86
receptors in the skin
merkels disc
meissners corpuscles
pacinian
ruffini
free nerve endings
87
receptive field
specific region that when stimulated, will send a neuronal response (like for pain)
88
Merkel's Disc
shallow in the skin
distinguishes edges and points
89
Meissners Corpuscle
shallow in the skin
detects light touch changes
90
Pacinian
deep in the skin
distinguishes vibration - even light ones
91
Russini
deep in the skin
feeling the skin stretching
92
how can receptive fields be so precise?
surrounding area of the field is active inhibition (no activity) when stimulated
means that action potential will only fire with activation at the core of the field
93
how are receptive fields distributed?
unequally, they will clump up in smaller areas (fingertips) causing them to be more sensitive than larger areas such as the back/shoulder
94
how can we determine the intensity of the stimulation?
strong stimulation = less time between activation (rapid and frequent)
weaker stimulation = more time between activations (less frequent)
95
sensory adaptation
gradual decrease of responsiveness of a stimulus
(like getting used to a smell - not as strong as when you first smelled it)
96
phasic receptors
fast adaptation - only fires upon a change in the environment (new smell/taste)
97
tonic receptors
slow adaptation - continuous firing of the neuron that show intensity and duration of the stimulus (pain)
98
Dorsal column system
pathway for vibration, fine touch and proprioception
99
dorsal root
where the sensory information is inputted
100
decussation
crossing over of information - contralateral organization
101
pathway for dorsal column
1) receptors on skin
2) spinal cord (dorsal column)
3) Medulla - decussation
4) Thalamus
5) Primary sensory cortex
102
primary somatosensory cortex location
postcentral gyrus
103
primary somatosensory cortex
s1: receives touch information contralaterally
104
sensory homunculus
a neurological "map" of the human body located in the brain that represents how much processing power is dedicated to different body parts
105
non primary somatosensory cortex
s2: receives projections from s1
secondary sensory cortex
106
polymodal neurons
receive information from multiple association areas (touch & visual)
107
how can topographic organization change
with severe injury or with years of training one area (hands of piano players)
108
pain
unpleasant sensory and emotional experience associated with tissue damage
109
sensory-discriminative dimension
throbbing, gnawing pain
110
motivational-affective dimension
emotional dimension (tired, fearful, sickening)
111
Cognitive-evaluative dimension
intensity of pain (no, mild, excruciating)
112
nociception
process of detecting and signalling potential damaged tissue
detected by free nerve endings
113
a-delta fiber
rapid due to myelination
(stubbing your toe)
114
c-fibers
slow (unmyelinated) secondary pain
(throbbing pain after initial shock) longer lasting
115
TRPV1
reports rise in temperature to warm for danger
activated with spice
on c fibers
116
TRPM3
detects higher temperature changes than TRPV1 found on a-delta fiber
does NOT respond to spice
117
spinothalamic tract
pathway of pain to the brain
118
pain pathway steps:
1) free nerve endings detect pain
2) input through dorsal horn, cross over, ascends up anterolateral quadrant
3) brainstem sites (PAG)
4) thalamus
5) s1 and cingulate cortex
119
direct pathway model
model that explains perception of pain through bottom up processing (starts at nociceptors that sends signal to brain to perceive)
120
problems with direct pathway model
cannot explain: phantom limbs, mental/emotional pain, top-down processing perception of pain
121
gate control theory of pain
the spinal cord has a gate that controls if pain is let in or blocked out
122
how can rubbing your arm after hitting it help reduce pain
the touch sensation can take over the pain signals when traveling to the brain
123
Psyc 280
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