1
Q
What are the two main divisions of the nervous system?
A
Central nervous system (CNS)
Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, while the PNS includes all other neural elements.
2
Q
What are the three layers of the meninges?
A
- Dura mater
- Arachnoid
- Pia mater
The meninges protect the brain and spinal cord and have distinct structural properties.
3
Q
What is meningitis?
A
Infection in the meninges causing inflammation
It can lead to severe symptoms like headaches, fever, and even coma.
4
Q
What is the function of cerebral spinal fluid?
A
- Cushions the brain
- Reduces movement
- Drains waste during sleep
It plays a crucial role in protecting the brain and maintaining homeostasis.
5
Q
What is hydrocephalus?
A
Enlargement of ventricles due to blocked cerebral spinal fluid
It can lead to increased pressure on the brain and developmental issues in infants.
6
Q
True or false: The blood-brain barrier is formed by astrocytes and protects the brain from toxic substances.
A
TRUE
However, this barrier also limits the effectiveness of certain medications.
7
Q
What are the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
A
- Sympathetic nervous system
- Parasympathetic nervous system
They regulate involuntary functions such as heart rate and digestion.
8
Q
What does the sympathetic nervous system do?
A
Prepares the body for ‘fight or flight’ response
It increases heart rate and slows down non-essential functions like digestion.
9
Q
What is the function of the medulla?
A
Controls autonomic functions like breathing and heart rate
It is located in the hindbrain and is vital for survival.
10
Q
What are the four lobes of the brain?
A
- Frontal lobe
- Occipital lobe
- Parietal lobe
- Temporal lobe
Each lobe has distinct functions related to processing information.
11
Q
What is the function of the thalamus?
A
Relay station for sensory information
It plays a critical role in processing and transmitting sensory signals to the cerebral cortex.
12
Q
What are the major parts of a neuron?
A
- Soma/cell body
- Dendrites
- Axon
Each part has a specific role in transmitting and processing information.
13
Q
What is the role of glial cells?
A
- Support neuronal function
- Maintain homeostasis
- Form myelin sheath
They are essential for the overall health and efficiency of the nervous system.
14
Q
What is the function of the cerebellum?
A
Regulates movement, balance, and posture
It is often referred to as the ‘little brain’ and is crucial for motor learning.
15
Q
What is a synapse?
A
Location where information is transmitted from one neuron to another
The synaptic cleft is the space between the presynaptic and postsynaptic cells.
16
Q
Substania nigra
A
responsible for voluntary control of movement and is affected in Parkinson’s disease.
This area degenerates in Parkinson’s, leading to movement control issues.
17
Q
What are the three types of neurons based on the number of neurites?
A
- Unipolar
- Bipolar
- Multipolar
These classifications help in understanding the structure and function of neurons.
18
Q
What is the function of the limbic system?
A
Plays a role in emotion, learning, and memory
Key components include the amygdala and hippocampus.
19
Q
CT Scan
A
images are based on tissue density with x-ray tech
20
Q
CT scan pros
A
non-invasive, widely available, used on almost everyone
21
Q
CT scan cons
A
not detailed, radiation exposure
22
Q
MRI function
A
uses magnetic fields and radio frequency pulses
23
Q
MRI pros
A
non-invasive, tells WHERE something happens
24
Q
MRI cons
A
limited patient behavior, cannot tell when
25
DTI function
shows neural tracts by showing diffusion of water
26
DTI cons
doesn't show the direction of the tracts
27
neuroimaging for anatomy
CT scan, MRI, DTI
28
Neuroimaging for function
PET, EEG, fMRI, TMS
29
PET function
analyzes biochemical activity through tracers
30
PET pros
can use multiple tracers
31
PET cons
invasive
timings are delayed
cannot be done repeatedly can't tell where/when
32
EEG function
measures electrical potential with electrodes
33
Event related potentials
small changes in EEG waves in response to a stimulus
34
EEG pros
non-invasive
tells WHEN
repeatable
35
EEG cons
limited precision - activity is tracked from hundreds of neural signals
36
fMRI function
tracks blood oxygen levels
causes more oxyhemoglobin and less deoxyhemoglobin
37
fMRI pros
non-invasive
repeatable
38
fMRI cons
can't tell when
limited patient behavior
39
TMS function
creates temporary lesion to disrupt behavior
40
TMS pros
non-invasive
reveals functional activity information
41
TMS cons
not precise-big coil
42
Luigi galvani
frog muscle contraction experiment
discovered fluid is not responsible for muscle movement
43
afferent nerves
takes sensory information towards the brain
44
efferent nerves
takes motor information away from brain towards specific muscle
45
Broca's area
speech production
46
Wernicke's area
speech comprehension
47
nissal stain
highlights cell bodies
48
golgi stain
reveals fine details of the individual neuron
49
neuron hypothesis
idea that neurons are not connected, but instead they have a form of communication
50
Camilo golgi
created golgi stain
his theory of the nerve net was disproven
51
ottow loewi
discovered neurons communicate with chemical signaling
52
Hebbian synapses
neuron pathways that consistently fire together will eventually wire together
53
central nervous system
encased in bone - spinal cord and brain
54
supports for the cns
bone
meninges
cerebral spinal fluid
55
Dura mater
outermost layer of meninges
paper like but strong
56
Arachnoid
middle layer, web like
57
Pia mater
innermost layer of meninges
very thin, not visible to naked eye
58
meningitis
infection in the meninges causing inflammation and pressure on the brain
59
meningioma
tumor growing in the meninges
grows very slowly, hard to catch
60
Cerebral spinal fluid
found in the ventricular chambers
provides a cushion for fall
61
glymphatic system
uses fluid to drain waste, happens during sleep
62
hydrocephalus
ventricles are enlarged blocking fluid drainage
seen in babies, deadly
63
Blood brain barrier
made by astrocytes, surrounded by glial cells
64
Peripheral nervous system
everything outside the brain and spinal cord
includes autonomic and somatic nervous system
65
somatic nervous system
voluntary movement
sensory processing
reflex actions
66
cranial nerves
control movement in the head, neck, and face
has 12 pairs
67
Spinal nerves
branch from the spinal cord connecting to the whole body
has sensory and motor nerves
68
Ventral part of the nerve
motor
leads to paralysis if damaged
69
dorsal part of the nerve
sensory
70
Autonomic nervous system
involuntary functions - heart rate
divides into sympathetic and parasympathetic
71
parasympathetic nervous system
rest and digest state
72
sympathetic nervous system
fight-or-flight state
73
stroke
caused by a blockage of blood vessels leading to insufficient blood in the brain
74
sylvian fissure
line showing separation of temportal lobe and frontal lobe
75
central sulcus
divides frontal lobe and parietal
76
precentral gyrus
frontal part of central sulcus - controls sensory
77
postcentral gyrus
parietal part of central gyrus - controls motor
78
cerebral cortex
outermost layer of the brain
79
gyri
raised portions of the brain (hills)
80
sulci
valley parts of the brain
81
frontal lobe
judgement, planning, memory
82
occipital
visual processing
83
parietal lobe
sensory processing
84
temporal lobe
auditory processing and language comprehension
85
Hindbrain
involuntary functions
medulla, pons, reticular formation, cerebellum
86
medulla
breathing, heart rate
deep in the brain-difficult to damage
87
pons
connects medulla and midbrain
88
reticular formation
sleep, bodily rhythms, arousal
insomnia - signalling issues in ret form
extends from medullar through thalamus
89
cerebellum
movement, balance
compact with folds tightly packed with cells
90
midbrain
connects the hindbrain and forebrain
substantia nigra, tegmentum (tectum)
91
tegmentum
alertness, pain
roof of midbrain
92
tectum
4 bumps behind tegmentum for vision and auditory
93
superior colliculi
vision
94
inferior colliculi
auditory
95
Substantia nigra
voluntary (controlled) movement - when damaged can lead to parkinson's
dopamine production
96
Forebrain
thalamus, hypothalamus, cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, limbic system
97
thalamus
relay station for sensory information
98
hypothalamus
hunger, thirst, basic survival needs
99
cerebral cortex
complex cognitive abilities
sensory processing
100
basal ganglia
motor control
caudate, putamen, globus pallidus
101
limbic system
emotion, learning, memory
amygdala, hippocampus, cingulate gyrus
102
axon collateral
point at which axons branch off into terminals
103
interneurons
found between sensory and motor neurons
104
glial cells
support neuronal functioning
105
astrocytes
most common
forms BBB
regulates content, helps repair scar tissue
106
microglial cell
immune system help
cleans out debris
107
Oligodendrocytes
create myelin for multiple neurons in CNS
108
schwann cells
creates myelin for one neuron in PNS
109
multiple sclerosis
caused by damaged myelin causing an incomplete and slower signal across the axon
110
nodes of ranvier
gaps in the myelin that allows signal to hop between to speed up process
111
magnetoen-
cephalography MEG
provide maps of brain activity during certain behaviors
112
sodium potassium pump
pumps 3 sodium out, and 2 potassium in causing the RMP to be negative
113
electrostatic pressure
charges molecules and ions will move towards areas of their opposite charge
114
equilibrium potential
point when cell membrane is balanced
after electrostatic pressure does it's job
115
local potential
small, temporary change in the membrane potential
occurs in dendrites and cell body
116
after potentials
small positive/negative charge change that might follow after an action potential just fired
117
absolute refractory phase
time where no amount of stimulus can trigger another action potential
118
relative refractory phase
another action potential can be triggered but a greater stimulus is needed as it is below RMP
119
conduction velocity
speed at which an action potential is propagated down the axon
120
saltatory conduction
form of fast conduction where it can hop over the myelinated areas at meet at the nodes
121
what factor causes saltatory conduction
presence of myelin on an axon
122
excitatory postsynaptic potential
(EPSP)
depolarizing potential in a neuron bringing it closer to threshold firing and action potential
123
inhibitory postsynaptic potential
(IPSP)
hyperpolarizing potential in a neuron bringing it further from threshold decreasing chances of an action potential
124
chloride ions
negatively charged, when opened it can cause IPSP
125
spatial summation
sum of all potentials (ISPS, and ESPS) to see if it will fire at the hillock
all reach the hollock at the same time
126
temporal summation
potentials reach the hillock at different times
the closer in time they reach, the more likely to fire an AP
127
synaptic delay
the time between action potential arriving and neurotransmitters binding to receptors
128
ligand
substance that binds to receptors like a drug or neurotransmitter
they are very specific to their receptor (lock and key)
129
Binding site
where the neurotransmitter/drug will bind
each neurotransmitter has multiple receptors
130
agonist
drug that mimics the neurotransmitter and will function the same (allowing the channel to open)
131
antagonist
binds and blocks function - prevents action of neurotransmitter
132
degradation
chemical break down of NT's to make it inactive
133
seizure
abnormal wave in electrical brain activity
134
tonic-clonic seizure
nerve-cells fire in high frequency bursts causing involuntary contractions in the body
135
simple partial seizure
spike in EEG, loss of awareness and memory
136
Penfield's procedure
did surgery on conscious patients to help with seizures
helped map cerebral cortex and functions of motor, sensory and cognitive areas.
137
ionotropic receptor
has a channel that will open with agonist binds
fast acting and fast effects
138
metabotropic receptors
doesn't have an opening, when agonist binds, they activate a g-protein
139
second messengers
g protein alters inner postsynaptic cell which activate second messengers
cause of long lasting effects
140
first discovered transmitter
acetylcholine discovered by Loewi
141
endogenous subtance
comes from inside the body (neurotransmitters)
142
exogenous substance
outside substances that change the body functioning
143
exocytosis
process of pushing vesicles towards cell membrane
144
amino acid NT's
GABA, glycine, glutamate
145
peptide NT's
opioid peptides (endorphins), oxytocin, vasopressin
146
amine NT's
acetylcholine, serotonin, dopamine
147
gas NT's
don't behave the same way
nitric acid, oxide, carbon monoxide
148
glutamate
most widespread excitatory transmitter in the brain
ketamine acts on glutamate
149
GABA
always inhibitory and most widespread
allows Cl- in the cell making it inhibitory
alcohol acts on it
150
co-localization
neurons that make and release more than one type of NT
151
dopamine
involved in motivation, reward, cognition
found all throughout the forebrain
152
norepinephrine
used in fight-or-flight
153
ventral tegmental area
part of midbrain that send DA to nucleus accumbens
reward system
154
raphe nuclei
string of nuclei in midbrain that has mostly serotonin neurons
155
locus coeruleus
produces norepinephrine
156
serotonin
mood, sleep, anxiety, sexual behavior
157
gas transmitters
get released once produced (no vesicles)
no receptors, diffuses into the cell triggering second messengers
retrograde - goes backwards
158
dopamine major pathways
mesolimbic
mesocortical
159
mesolimbocortical pathway
vta to nucleus accumbens
160
mesostriatal pathway
substantia nigra to basal ganglia
161
partial agonist
drug binds to receptors and has a lesser effect
162
bioavailable
how much of the drug can act on target
depends on administration
163
binding affinity
strength at which the ligand binds to receptors
164
efficacy
ability of a bound ligand to activate the receptor
165
dose-response curve
graph plotting dose and its response/effect
curve shows strength of drug
when max effects are reached all receptors are bound
166
drug tolerance
repeated exposure to a drug reduces the effects of it causing an increased dose needed to feel the same effects
167
mesocortical DA
pathway
activated by most drugs
responsible for learning,
motivation, and the control and direction of behaviour
168
drug classes
stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens
169
stimulants
alertness, more activity in CNS
caffeine, cocaine, nicotine
170
stimulants in synaptic transmission
generally increase DA by blocking reuptake channels and making more dopamine
trapped in cleft over stimulating receptors
171
depressants in synaptic transmission
enhances inhibitory (GABA) and inhibits excitatory (glutamate)
indirectly effects DA system
172
hallucinogens
altered perception, insightful experiences
173
hallucinogens in synaptic transmission
increased glutamate and serotonin
can be inhibitory or excitatory
174
opioids in synaptic transmission
decreases release of NT's, helps with pain relief
175
periaqueductal gray
midbrain region involved in pain perception
176
two major receptors for cannabis
CB1, and CB 2
177
CB1
reduces both inhibitory and excitatory
178
CB2
works on immune system
can be taken individually
179
Psyc 280
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