1
Q
Cryptic Female Choice
A
female choice that occurs w/in a female’s body
- sperm selection: internal fertilization
- copulatory courtship: intormission rate and paternity in dwarf spiders
2
Q
Direct Benefits
A
males increase females survival or reproduction in exchange for sex
- females go for looks or benefits in food/territory because it enhances their survival
- Hanging flies: exchange prey for sex with female. bigger size prey = longer copulation
3
Q
Good Genes Model of Mate Choice
A
choosy females get indirect benefits (high quality offspring)
- condition dependent indicators: impossible for low quality males to reproduce
- Red Belly Male Sickle Back (fish): redness of belly is a indicator of immune system strength. more red= stronger immune system
4
Q
Honest Signaling
A
form of communicating true info to facilitate trust
5
Q
Indirect Benefits
A
in many species males give nothing but sperm
- females are highly choosy= males are ornamented
6
Q
Performance
A
identifying performance constraints; behaviour and physiology
- female preference for high performance: demonstrates something reliable, harder to measure
7
Q
Mate Choice for Genetic Compatibility
A
heterozygosity masks deleterious recessives (the main genetic problem you can have)
- MHC
8
Q
Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC)
A
females prefer mates w/ diff MHC alleles b/c it = offspring with stronger immune systems (resistant to infections)
- men wear sweater, give it to women. women prefer smell of men genetically distinct from them
9
Q
Optimal Outbreeding Theory
A
female should prefer medium level of outbreed
10
Q
Sex Role Reversed Species
A
when males provide lots of direct benefits, females compete
- Picky Male Mormon Crickets: spermatophere that females eat has lots of protein that is important to the female. Females compete for access, males choose the most fertile
- Reverse Dimorphism in Jacanas: female territory with multiple males. Bigger the female = the more mates. Babies will be killed by new females if mama is replaced
11
Q
Sexual Conflict
A
males wants and female doesn’t
- female rejects male, male punishes females and forces copulation
- Ducks: lots of forced copulation. long inflatable penis (female adapted vaignal tract
- Fruit flies: forced 1:1 relationship. fitness relies on each other
12
Q
Chase Away Selection
A
arms race b/n males and females
- males do things to overcome females reluctance to mate
- females counteract w/ adaptations in order to run away
13
Q
Zahavi’s Handicap model
A
increase trait magnitide needs to increase trait quality. Highest quality does not mean best choice
- as long as low quality accelerates faster than high quality decreases, average quality has increasing trend with trait magnitude
- peacock tail and variation is size/lenght. male quality: adaptation to local enviro
14
Q
Divorce
A
re mating. could be territory based
- typically, fitness is related to pair bond duration. longer bonds= more offspring= higher LRS
15
Q
Extra-Pair Copulations (EPC)
A
genetic polyandry, polygyny
Compatible genes (why epc): heterozygosity can increase. MHC
- superb sterlings: own mate= low heterozygosity; other mate= high heterozygosity
16
Q
Extra pair fertilization (EPF)
A
increases reproductive variance
- 40% of indigo bunting chicks are from EPF
17
Q
EPC and Good Genes Model
A
social mates provide the best care, but not the best genes
- Fairy Wrens: prefer the same male for EPC b/c they molted early
18
Q
EPC Direct Benefits
A
a second male will help a female dunnock if he is allowed to mate
- Avoiding infanticide: males can get violent toward females and babies
19
Q
Human Mating Systems
A
societal variation and individual variation
20
Q
Infanticide
A
killing infants/ offspring
21
Q
Lekking
A
males hangout in one place and females come to visit
- social promiscuity, genetic polygyny
- female choice: females dont have to compromise so they just choose the hottest one
- extreme mating variance: 6% of hammerhead bats get 80% of matings
22
Q
Ecology of Lekking
A
females cannot be monopolized
23
Q
How Lekking Works
A
- Hotspots: males go where females are (little support); the best territories change overtime
- Hotshots: loser males cluster around sexiest male. No sexy male= no lek
- Female Preference: prefer large groups
24
Q
Male Paternal Care
A
Birds: Sunbirds (offspring grow better when dad is around), Starlings (tradeoff w/ aggression; casterated= low T)
Mammals: Oldfield Mice (higher chance of surviving with dad around), Hamsters (males will midwife)
Insects: care is essential for egg survival. Water Bigs = laid eggs on males back
25
Mate Choice for Compatability
behaviourally compatible cocktails are better parents and raise more offspring
Captive breeding of parrots case study
- Americans: wanted as much genetic diversity as possible
- Puerto Ricans: let the birds decide (more babies)
26
Monogamy
one male to one female for one breeding season
- serial monogamy = more than 1 breeding season
- uncommon, but widely distributed. 90% of birds
27
Monogamy and Sexual Selection
genetic monogamy = lower reproductive skew
- less dimorphism
- mutual assessment: pickiness of both genders
- bluethrows (bird): males more colourful than females. Approach, Display, and Association are behaviours directed to more colorful females
28
Ecology of Monogamy
- synchronous breeding increases monogamy
- males can only defend enough resources for 1 female sometimes
29
Parental Care: Costs and Benefits
improves outcomes for offspring (may evolve to become necessary), reduces parents survivorship
- Selection perspective: survival of offspring might make selection favour your life
- Tropical birds value own life, Temperate birds value eggs more
- Tropic: high nest predation, low nest success (having long adult life is guaranteed)
- Temperate: low nest predation, high nest success (having long adult life is not guaranteed)
30
Polyandry
one female mates w/ multiple males
- Genetic Polyandry: fertility insurance. EPC increases probability of reproduction
- Cooperative Polyandry: very rare. only in extreme scarcities. male galapagos hawks cooperate to raise kids
31
Polygamy
one or both sexes mate w/ more than 1 individual
32
Polygyny
one male mates with multiple femasles
- Social Polygny: some males are mates to defend more than one female (increases reproductive variance for males)
- Female Defense Polygyny: females cluster around male. lower males involvement in offspring
33
Resource Defense Polygyny
males defend something females need. Clumped (in one place) or Mobile (males take resource with him)
- Breeding sites so females HAVE to mate
- opposed by female-female aggression
- Lamprologus Callipterus (fish): females want to lay egg in snail shell and males collect shells so female chooses one and has to reproduce with him
34
Promiscuity
no pair bonds, female-biased environment. no social relationship. often genetically polygnous.
Ecology: better for male to leave then guard mate and help with offspring
- opportunity to pair bond is limited
- scramble competition: fertilizing as much as possible (explosive breeding)
35
Sexual Selection and Mating Systems
Social (who you bond/spend time w/) VS Genetic (who you have sex and reproduce w/)
- not the same all the time. can be socially monogamous and sexually polygamous
- promiscuity, monogamy, polygyny, polyandry
36
Evolution of Adoption
discrimination: shouldnt spend time/resources on kids that arent yours
- cliff swallows: complex calls, b/c large groups, individually distinct
- barn swallows: isolated. Simple calls
orphans, egg dumping, maladaptive behaviour (tendency to care for kids)
less costly: if there is danger, can sacrifice kids that arent yours
37
The Polygyny Threshold Model
females maximize and act to benefit their own fitness
- males have territories of diff quality. on avrg, females benefit from getting better territories
- Potential Costs: splitting with another female (better to be ONLY female)
- Tradeoff: will give up better territory if there is another female, however, some territories are too good to five up and will chosoe to be the other women
38
Why Females/ Males Care
Females: increase investment in (future) offspring (increase threshold for abandonment
- timing in internally fertilizing species (males can leave)
- certainty of parentage over lower for males
- cost of not seeking more mates is high for males
Males: if females come to male, male doesnt give up matings to care
- cost of caring for female is no high because egg production is costly
39
Why Females EPC?
low benefits: search time (for better mates and females only have a certain amt of ovum), STDs, risks of losing care, risks of punishment
- Lesser Gray Shrike: females have to put more into immunity
40
Why Are Male Ever Socially Monogamous?
in some species, it is voluntary (sometimes tradeoffs that benefit his fitness)
41
Mateguarding
females remain receptive, males unlikely to gain additional mating
- Clown Shrimp: 3 week fertile period. hangout b/c short period and you want to fertilize
42
Mate-Assistance
w/o helping, male fitness would be lower
- feedable offspring, dispersed females (birds). males can feed babies too
- Seahorse: one clutch (group of eggs) limit. They have synchronized reproductive phases so switching mates is costly. Mpred and socially monogamous. knows paternity
43
Female Enforced Monogamy
monopolizes male, blocking other females
- Red-winged Blackbirds: open enviro and productive habitat= females cluster together and males can have harem. males defend from other males. Females dont like each other
- Burying Beetles: dead mouse and prepare it to lay eggs on. can attract additional female with chemical that is emitted. they tie up female huzz to make them stay at home
44
Alturism
paying a direct fitness cost to benefit another individual
- incompatible w/ darwinism alone (individual level selection)
- genes helps body reproduce more (direct fitness) or gene helps other bodies that carry copies itself to reproduce more (indirect fitness); indirect + direct = inclusive fitness
45
Darwin
selection eliminates behaviours that reduce an individual's reproduction
46
Benefits of Group Living
attempts to explain variation (w/in and b/n species)
- we see current conditions (might have evolved differently in past)
- aggregation can be byproduct of resources (coincidental)
More than 1 factor may operate at the same time
47
Cheating
Fungi: stocks die, spores reproduce. cheaters refuse to be stock
- refraining from competition is a collective resources
- Analogy: tress all same, middle grows tall and all grow tall. no benefit, just a cycle
48
Cooperation
social behaviour benefits all actors' lifetime reproductive success
- consistent w/ darwinism
- evolution of self-sacrificeL only short tem, but the benefits are long term
- Lazuli Buntings (bird): ugly and sexy males get paired, leave out the average male
49
Cooperation with Delayed Benefits
alpha and beta males. female always chooses alpha. eventually beta's become alpha's
50
Cooperation Mediated Benefits of Sociality
- Protection from physical factors (monarch butterflies), protection from predetors (dilution, self herding, many eyes, mobbing)
- Foraging: hunting (form of cooperation), information center (abt food), and food sharing
-Mate finding
- Resource Defense: anis= form coalitions. very territorial
- Division of Labour: Atta. wheat cutting ants (sexuals, defenders, gardner nurses, nest workers, foragers excavators)
- Modifying Enviro: niche construction
51
Cooperative Breeding
individuals (usually older offspring) help a breeding pair to raise their young
- Direct fitness: territoty acquisition, matings, survival
- Direct Cost: present and future breeding
- White winged choughs: change in body mass over reproductive season is positively correlated w/ helping effort. more helping= lose weight
52
Cooperative Breeding: When to Help
Seychelles Wrabler: saturated habitat hypothesis: not enough space for increase population, helpers stay with parents
- transplant experiment: more space = less helping
Parents being around matters (new tenets would not nec. like your help)
- big diff in helping with full siblings, half siblings and nonsiblings
53
Costs of Group Living
-Pathogens: being social increases getting a disease. bigger colonies= more disease (prairie dogs)
- Dominants: if you arent the most dominant, someone else is.
-- Neolamprologus pulcher (fish): spend 2/3 life being submissive
- Interference competition: groove billed oni (communal breeders), more dom female tries to be last to lay egg b/c other females will destory eggs
54
Dilution Effect
biodiversity of a species w/in a ecosystem reduces transmission of pathogens
55
Eusociality
non-reproductive class supports reproductive class
- superorganism: reproducers= sex organs; non-reproducers= all other organs
- Hympenoptera, termites, shrimp, aphids, mole-rats
56
Ecology of Eusociality
cost of helping = low, benefits = high
- a full sib produces as much fitness as an offspring
- more efficient to help when young are needy
- nests can be costly (hard to start own nest)
57
Green Beards
if altruistic genes were obvious, altruists could seek one another and cooperate w/o worrying abt kin (altruism would evolve if directed by close kin)
- Evolutionary Unstable: can be exploited, or false green beardism can occur (mutant gene can give green beard but not altruism)
58
Human Social Behaviour
highly social behaviour
- inclusive fitness and nepotism apply; reciprocal cooperation is MOST common in humans
- culture, morality, language, policing all contribute
59
Inclusive Fitness Theory
Hamilton. actor and recipient; rare, heritable, altruism spreads
- d + rx > 0
- d= direct fitness; r= relatedness; x= effects of actors beh. on recipients fitness
- rx= indirect fitness consequences of the genes
60
Kinds of Social Structures
Solitary Breeding: no parents care
Solitary Breeding: parental care
Colonial Breeding: bunch of ppl in the same area
Communal Breeding: share some resources, put eggs in same nest
Cooperative Breeding: helpers @ nest
Eusociality: very strong sociality, reproductive and non-reproductive caste
61
Manipulation (policing)
prosocial behaviour is imposed on individuals
-evolution of self-sacrifice: potential cheaters are forced not to cheat
- power dynamics, counter adaptations
- Policing in pig-tailed macaques: take most dominant individual away= more fragmentation, less diverse social itneractions
62
Many Eyes Hypothesis
more group members= higher ability to be more aware of predators
63
Multicellularity
Inclusive Fitness: efficiency of specialized, integrated systems
Mutant Cheaters: cancer
Almost all organisms begin as a single cell
- ensures all start w/ same gene, so all altruistic w/ each other
64
Prisoner's Dilemma
a model of reciprocal cooperation.
payoff for a given strategy depends on the strategy of the other individual
- Counterintuitive. on avrg, best for both to cooperate
- Evolutionary Stable Strategy= always defect. act in own interests. selection should favor
They both cooperate: neither sells out and they get a light sentence
- actor cooperates, partner defects: 10 years (and vice versa)
- both defect: 5 years
65
Reciprocal Cooperation
evolution requires repeated interactions, recognition and memory (reputation), and in animals, high benefits and low costs
- essentially, if i give you something now, can i expect you to repay me in the future?
-Vampire bats: have friends. individuals roost together and interact more often
-Pied Flycatchers: mob for helpful neighbors. helpful neighbors are more likely to be helped
66
Recognizing Kin
Hamilton: altruists must help/be directed towards kin
-By Context (Humans): Kibbutzim (jewish communist farm), breast feeding, raised together
- By Cues (Spadefoot Toad Larvae): omnivores associate w/ kin, carnivores associate w/ non-kin (cannibals), nip and decide (chemicals cues of kinship)
-Kin are all around (pseudomonas bacteria and siderphores): chemical binds to iron, benefits all
67
Relatedness
probability that a given gene is inherited from a common ancestor
- identical twin= 1, parents/siblings= 0.5, Half siblings= 0.25, 1st cousin: 0.125
68
Relatedness, Altruism, Spite
altruistic to relatives
Argentive Ants: Argentina: high diversity; California: low diversity
- In argentina: determine memerbship of colony= gene relatedness. chemical detection. palpate them so they fight
- in california: all related so no fighting, which is bad for ecosystem
Sea Anemones: clones. everyone= friends until 2 diff colonies meetup, then they fight
69
Social Behaviour
a trait (or set of traits) than can evolve, resulting in a greater sociality
70
Social Interactions: Darwin and Hamilton
- Darwin: mutual benefit (actor and partner= pos), Selfishness (actor= pos, Partner= neg)
- Hamilton: Altruism (actor= neg, Partner= +), Spite (Actor and Partner= neg)
71
Tit-for-Tat: Prisoner's Dilemma
start by cooperating then do whatever your opp did previously
72
Tragedy of the Commons
when there is a shared resource, there is a temptation to overexploit; resulting in collapse/failure
73
Aggression
Behaviour designed to inflict noxious stimulation or destruction on another animal for reasons other than predation
74
Aggression in Domestic Dogs
breed is good predictor
- Overall: breed, physical punishment, male, intact, early life, "adversity"
- Stranger-Directed: rural living living, older dogs, fear of strangers, sick dogs
- Owner-directed: older dogs, female
75
Aggressive Signals
in asymmetrical contests, the competitor would lose should give up w/o a fight
- fighting ability signals, motivation signals, dominance signals
76
Agonistic Behaviour
behaviour that mediates conflict (signaling and fighting)
77
Dear Enemies
territorial neighbors usually tolerate each other
- Neighbor-Stranger Discrimination (birds): neighbor song on wrong border = focal bird goes crazy
78
Dominance Hierarchies
need to recognize group members, relationships develop through interaction. Winning losing events: subordinates will allow dominats to access resources
- Rank ordering: usually linear, smallish groups, requires memory (recognition)
- Hens: not constantly shifting. already dom are continually beating shit out of the others
79
Evolutionary Stable Strategy (ESS)
once widespread, cannot be displaced by alt strategies
80
Motivation
how badly an animal wants to win
- how much cost it is willing to pay for the resource
- Male Newts fight over female. Bigger female= more eggs. value of a mating partner linked size
- Age: the cost dying covaries negatively w/ age
81
Owner's Advantage
owner's almost always win
- higher RHP (have territory, regular food source), More Motivated (know their territory well)
82
Resource Holding Potential (RHP)
the ability to win an escalated fight
- body size is important
83
The Cost of Fighting
conflict over resources drives agonistic behaviour
- food, mates, shelters, territories
- sometimes fighting isnt worth it for the winner
84
The Hawk-Dove Game
the more expensive losing is and less value that resource has, the less desiravle an outcome is. Two Strategies.
85
Hawk Strategy Vs Dove Strategy
Hawk: Attacks everyone
- 50% chance of winning against hawk, 100% winning against dove
- cost of losing a fight= L
Dove: displays to doves, flees from hawks
- 50% chance of winning against dove, 0% against hawk but no cost of fighting
- cost of display= D
86
Hawk-Dove Outcomes
Hawk against Hawk: (V-L)/2
- -25
Hawk Against Dove: V
- +50
Dove Against Hawk: 0
- 0
Dove Against Dove: V/2 - D
- +15
87
The Hawk-Dove Aseessor Game: Asym RHP's
Assessor gives informative display first. if think can win= will fight; if think will lose= flee
- Assessor is pure ESS in many circumstances
88
The Sequential Assessment Model (SAM)
based on mutual assessment
- each interaction reveals fighting ability (RHP)
- contestants gain info, update estimate of whether they will win
- ESS: giving up line
89
Stages of Escalation in Nannacara Anomala (Fish)
a) Broadside display: size each other up
b) Tail beating: strength display
c) Frontal orientation: confidence
d) Biting
e) Mouth wrestling: most informative
f) Termination
90
Winner Effects
winning tends to increase the probability of winning future fights
91
Loser Effects
losing tends to decrease the probability of winnin future fights
92
Win/Lose Effects
- Blue-footed Boobies: act of the behaviour has consequences for future interactions
-- one chick will often beat up another one. submissives continue to sub, dominants will dom
-Copperhead Snakes: no winner effects; once a loser always a loser
-- two time loser consistantly to 10% smaller naive rivals
93
Win/Lose Effects: Simulation Model
winner effects generated linear heirarchies; loser effects produced a clear alpha but unresolved hierarchy
- winner effects result in a lot of fights. loser effects result in few fights among many cowed losers
94
Bystander and Audience Effects
experiments with green swordtails: one way glass, opaque barriers
chimp victims give longer screams when 1 or more on-lookers outrank their attacker
PSYC 2700
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