What are gender differences in behaviour we typically see at different ages? (age 1)
toy preferences as early as 1 year:
not only preference for gender typical toys but neutral toys if believed gender appropriate
What are gender differences in behaviour we typically see at different ages? (2nd year)
latter half:
- form gender-related expectations abt kinds of objects & activities typically associated w/ males & females
What are gender differences in behaviour we typically see at different ages? (age 2-3)
- learn which gender group they belong to
- age 3: use gender terms (e.g. boy) in speech
behaviour becomes gender-differentiated, particularly in sex-typed play:
- rough & tumble play - large vs. small groups - competition - pretend play (heroes vs. families) - aggression (physical vs. verbal/relational)
What are gender differences in behaviour we typically see at different ages? (preschool)
increase in sex-typed play & among same-sex peers:
- avoid peers who violate gender-typical behaviour - gender segregation appears to be culturally universal
What is gender segregation?
focuses on children’s tendency to associate w/ same-sex peers & avoid opposite-sex peers
- same-sex playmate choices originate in early discovery that play styles of children of same gender are more compatible w/ their own
What are gender differences in behaviour we typically see at different ages? (middle childhood)
peer groups tend to establish somewhat different gender-role norms for behaviour
boys:
- value self-assertion - peer groups more likely to reflect norms of dominance, self reliance & hiding vulnerability
girls:
- value affiliation/balance of self-assertion & affiliation - peer groups more likely to reflect norms of intimacy, collaboration & emotional sharing
What are gender differences in behaviour we typically see at different ages? (age 9/10)
- start to show understanding that gender is social category & that gender roles are social conventions not biological outcomes
- realise that gender discrimination is unfair & noticing when it occurs
What are gender differences in behaviour we typically see at different ages? (adolescence)
period of increased gender-role intensification/flexibility:
- intensification: heightened concerns w/ adhering to traditional gender roles
- flexibility: allows adolescents to transcend traditional conventions & pursue more flexible range of interests
What might account for the gender differences in behaviour? (socialisation factors)
gender socialisation:
- focus on how children learn gender-typed attitudes & behaviours thru observation, inference & practice
observational learning:
- b/c of gender segregation, witness same sex activities more - children see and experience roles of men & women in society, resulting in gender-typed activities
4 key processes:
1. attention (to gender info) 2. memory (for that info) 3. production (of gender behaviour) 4. motivation (to repeat gender typed behaviour)
What is the gender schema theory?
motivation to enact gender-typed behaviour begins soon after children can label other ppl’s & own gender during toddlerhood
- understanding of gender develops thru gender schemas: ways to talk, look, play, etc.
- use ingroup/outgroup gender schema to classify ppl as “same as me” or not
- gender self-socialisation: motivation for cognitive consistency leads to prefer, pay attention to & remember more abt others of own gender
- gender schema responsible for biased processing & remembering of info abt gender
- confirmation bias
What is the social cognitive theory?
learning abt gender occurs via 3 processes:
- tuition: direct teaching
- enactive experience: experiencing reactions one’s behaviour evokes in others
- modeling: observing other ppl
gender dvpm becomes process of self-regulations (or -socialisation):
- monitor behaviour & evaluate how well it matches personal standards - after evaluation, feel pride/shame, depending on whether they meet standards - positive self-reactions: gain self-efficacy (sense of personal agency)
What is the social role theory?
- emphasise how cultural practices both reflect & perpetuate gender divisions
- different expectations for each gender stem from division of labour b/w men & women in given society
- parents frequently assign different chores to boys & girls:
- boys: tasks performed outside home that involves tools & machines
- girls: tasks inside home, esp. helping to care for younger siblings
What is the social identity theory?
- address influence of group membership on ppl’s self-concepts & behaviour w/ others
- 2 processes that occur when person commits to ingroup:
- ingroup bias
- ingroup assimilation
What is ingroup bias?
tendency to evaluate individuals & characteristics associated w/ ingroup more positively than/as superior to those associated w/ outgroup
What is ingroup assimilation?
process whereby individuals are socialized to conform to group’s norms, demonstrating characteristics that define ingroup
What is the cognitive developmental theory?
knowledge abt gender in same ways that Piaget theorized children construct knowledge abt physical world:
- children actively seek to understand meaning of gender thru observing & interacting w/ world around them
- cognitive developmental changes in children’s understanding of gender during early childhood
- children’s understanding of gender involves 3 processes
What are the 3 processes in the cognitive developmental theory?
- gender identity by 30 months
- not fixed: think they & others can freely change their identity
- gender stability by age 3-4
- quasi-fixed: consistent in identifying person as boy/girl & think gender is not something that can change
- but still influenced by appearance
- gender constancy by age 6
- fixed: see gender as something determined at birth & doesn’t change
- begins self-socialising: want to engage in gender normative behaviour
What is the developmental intergroup theory (DIT)?
- integrates ideas from cognitive-developmental, schema & social identity theory
- highlights 3 processes that contribute to dvpm of stereotyping & prejudice based on person’s gender:
- establishing psychological salience of gender
- categorising individuals based on gender
- developing stereotypes & prejudices based on this categorisation
What is the gender self-socialisation model (GSSM)?
- integrates gender schema theory, social cognitive theory, social identity & other theoretical approaches
1. stereotype emulation hypothesis: child identify w/ gender ingroup more, more motivated to adhere to stereoypes for gender ingroup
2. stereotype construction hypothesis: apt to form generalised beliefs/stereotypes abt gender ingroup based on personal-social attributes
3. identity construction hypothesis: more likely to identify w/ gender ingroup when own personal-social attributes match stereotyped beliefs abt gender ingroup
