What is the self?
conceptual system made up of thoughts & attitudes abt self, incl.
- gender
- physical appearance
- possessions
- values, beliefs, preferences
- psychosocial characteristics
What is self-concept like in childhood?
sense of self: social construction based on observations & evaluations of others, esp. of caregivers
direct and indirect evaluations:
- indirect influences from how children are treated by others
What is self-concept like age 3-4?
understanding in terms of concrete, observable characteristics related to physical attributes, activities, abilities & psychological traits:
- unrealistically positive - coincides w/ first autobiographical memories over time
refine in primary school, in part b/c increasingly engage in social comparison
What is self-concept like middle-late primary school?
- begin to become integrated & more broadly encompassing
- older children rely on objective performance
- increasingly based on relationship w/ others:
- esp. peers & others’ evaluations of them
- making them vulnerable to low self-esteem
What is self-concept like early adolescence?
- characterised by personal fable – form of egocentrism
- preoccupied w/ what others think of them
- imaginary audience: belief that everyone is focused on appearance & behaviour
- abstract thinking emerges: conceive themselves in terms of abstract characteristics that encompass concrete traits & behaviours
- develop multiple selves
- sense of confusion
What is self-concept like middle adolescence?
- begin to agonise over contradictions in behaviour & characteristics
- lack cognitive skills needed to integrate contradictions into coherent conception of self
What is self-concept like late adolescence and early adulthood?
- more integrated & less determined by what others think
- reflect internalised values, beliefs & standards
- adult support helps understand complexity of personalities
- resolve inconsistencies in sense of self, establish single unified notion of who they are, centered around core values that drive consistent behaviour across contexts
What are factors that influence identity formation? (parent)
approach parents take w/ children:
- warmth & support: mature identity & less identity confusion
parental psychological control:
- explore in breadth & lower in making commitment to identity
identity formation influenced by larger social & historical context:
- women now likely to base identity on family & career
What are factors that influence identity formation?
- individual’s own behaviour (e.g. drug use)
- larger social context (e.g. SES)
- historical context (e.g. equal rights movements, religious rules/expectations)
What are factors that influence identity formation? (family dynamics)
- members influence one another directly & indirectly
- examined developmentally b/c dynamics change as children reach different ages
adolescents & parents:
- argue over mundane matters - feelings of closeness decline - may arise from adolescents’ desire for autonomy & interest in activities outside home
What is socialisation?
acquiring values, standards, skills, behaviours & knowledge regarded as appropriate for present & future role in culture
What are the 3 primary ways parents socialise their children?
- as direct instructors: directly/intentionally teach child smth
- as indirect socialisers: influence child by how they act around them
- as social managers: choose how child’s time is spent
What are parenting styles?
parenting behaviours & attitudes that set emotional climate of parent-child interactions
2 important dimensions:
- parental warmth, support & acceptance vs. parental rejection & nonresponsiveness
- parental control & demandingness
What is authoritative parenting?
high in demandingness & supportiveness
- set clear standards & limits and firm abt enforcing
- allow considerable autonomy within limits
- attentive & responsive to concerns & needs and respect & consider their perspective
What are the child characteristics of authoritative parenting?
- competent
- self-assured
- popular
- high in coping skills
childhood: low in antisocial behaviour
adolescence:
- high in social & academic competence and positive behaviour - low in problem behaviour
What is authoritarian parenting?
high in demandingness & low in supportiveness
- nonresponsive to children’s needs
- enforce demands thru exercise of parental power and use of threats & punishment
- oriented toward obedience & authority
- expect children to comply w/o question or explanation
What are the child characteristics of authoritarian parenting?
childhood & adolescence: low in social & academic competence
childhood: tend to be unhappy & unfriendly
- early childhood: boys affected more negative than girls
low in self confidence
What is permissive parenting?
low in demandingness & high in supportiveness
parent characteristics:
- highly responsive to children’s needs
- low demanding
- do not require children to regulate themselves or act in appropriate/mature ways
What are the child characteristics of permissive parenting?
- childhood: impulsive, lack self-control & low in school achievement
- adolescence: engage in more school misconduct & drug use
What is uninvolved parenting?
low in demandingness & low in supportiveness
parent characteristics:
- do not set limits for/monitor children’s behaviour
- not supportive & sometimes rejecting/neglectful
- tend to focus on own needs rather than children’s
What are the child characteristics of uninvolved parenting?
- infants & toddlers: attachment problems
- childhood: poor peer relationships
adolescence:
- antisocial behaviour - poor self-regulation - internalising problems - substance abuse - risky sexual behaviour - low academic & social competence
- depression, withdrawn
How do children influence parenting?
- physical appearance influences parental response:
- unattractive infants may experience different parenting than attractive infants
- genetic factors related to temperament:
- children can learn to be noncompliant thru interactions w/ parents that reinforce negative behaviour
- bidirectionality of parent-child interactions: parents affect children’s characteristics & vice versa (not tested):
- over time, effect reinforces & perpetuates each party’s behaviour
What are cliques and social networks?
- similarities members share bind them together
- cliques: friendship groups children voluntarily form/join themselves
- w/ age, increase focus on individual relationships
- adolescent girls tend to be more integrated into cliques
- adolescent boys have greater diversity of friends
- 7th grade: increase in cross-sex relationships
- high school: cliques often include both sexes
How does peer group composition change over childhood?
- middle childhood: tend to include 3-9 children of same sex & race
- age 11: many of children’s social interactions occur within clique
- age 11-18: increase in number of adolescents tied to cliques & increase in stability of cliques
- early & middle adolescence: high value on being in popular group & conforming to group’s norms
