Module 20 - Lecture 15 - Motor Learning

Question 1

Define Motor Learning. Why is capacity emphasized?

Answer 1

• Motor learning:
  
  • A process associated with practice or experience leading to relatively permanent changes in the capability for producing skilled actions (performance).
• Capability suggests a skilled learned person can have a “bad day” because of transient factors. Capability suggests that as we learn the potential for better performance is there. There is a spectrum of our performance.
• Therefore, the word capability is important in the definition to allow the flexibility that individuals even if they are well learned they might not be the best performer every day.

Question 2

What is the neurophysiology of how we learn and learning in general?

Answer 2

• Changes in behavior due to experience or practice
• Changes in the central nervous system = plasticity
• Learning = neural plasticity
  
  • Changes in strength of synapses to make a neural network more or less efficient
• Long term potentiation LTP = strengthen connections
• Long term depression LTD = weaken connections
  
  • This is a network so associativity matters

Question 3

What can occur if the tolerance for success (while still challenging) is lowered? What happens neurophysiological when you are rewarded for success?

Answer 3

• The idea that when you are exposed to a motor task, the initial expectation, if you believe you can succeed, you are more likely to learn but the task will need to be challenging in order for the person to be attentive and give effort.
• If you are engaging in a motor task and you identify that you are performing well, you will have better learning –> this is a great tool for clinicians for lowering tolerance for success.
• BIG PICTURE = lowering tolerance = potentially leading to improved learning.
  
  • Easier task, feeling you can succeed, easier success:
  • Increase motivation for continue success
• When you are rewarded for success there is an increase in satisfaction and there is a dopamine rush → and this is useful for learning.

Question 4

How are attention and challenge needed for motor learning? What happens neurophysiological when you pay attention?

Answer 4

• Performance of a skilled motor task (something that is challenging and you pay attention) promotes neural plasticity!!!
• Learning requires the clients neural networks are challenged and the client attends to practice
• HETEROSYNAPTIC PLASTICITY LEARNING

1. Neuron networks rewarding behaviors & increases motivation with the use of dopamine (making the connections of 2 neurons more excitable = a environment for long term potentiation)
2. Neuron networks increase saliency for attention with the use of acetylcholine in the CNS actually communicating with a G-protein/metabotropic receptor of muscarinic acetylcholine
3. Neuron networks increase mood/motivation with the use of serotonin → acts like acetylcholine and dopamine - they are heterosynaptic in a neuron that is receiving the neurotransmitter, therefore it might be able to better secrete neurotransmitter when excited or more likely to experience a large post-synaptic potential

Question 5

What are the 4 principles of the power law of practice?

Answer 5

1. Performance gains are not linear (logarithmic relation)
2. Early gains come quickly
3. Later gains come slowly
4. Performance can always improve

Question 6

What is the difference between constant and variable practice (which is better)? How can variable practice be practical for the “motor schema”?

Answer 6

• Variable practice = random intermix of variations of the task with every repetition
• Constant practice = all repetitions in one block then change “task”
  
  • Best retention is when the conditions of practice are consistent (specific) between practice and test
  • Variable practice lead to better retention
  • Variable practice leads to transfer to untrained variants of the task
• Variable practice is practical for the “motor schema” → by changing variables that can be modified like speed, amplitude, effector like limb that is used; we are forcing parameterization which allows the general motor program to better fit novel situations

Question 7

What is the difference between random and blocked practice? Which is better)?

Answer 7

• ***Random vs blocked practice is only applied if a client is learning two or more different skills.
• In blocked practice individuals rehearse the same skill over and over until some improvement is seen. → complete repetitions of task A and move to task B, each task repeated with minimal interruptions
• Random practice involves practicing multiple skills in a random order with minimisation of the number of consecutive repetitions of any one skill. → complete task A and task B with mixed order, frequently interrupted moving one to another

Random is better, it has slower acquisition but good learning and retention

Question 8

What is the difference between random and variable practice?

Answer 8

Variable practice is a type of learning technique which involves variations of the same skill being performed. … Random practice is very different to blocked and variable as this type allows the player to perform one type of task and then move onto the next straight way

Question 9

What are the 2 hypotheses as to why random practice is better than blocking?

Answer 9

1. The forgetting hypothesis
   
   • Blocked condition, you know the GMP and stored in STM & reused (the motor program is stored and sitting around…)
   • Random condition, forgetting and recall of GMP, when re-exposed to the trial → learn the entire information processing (engaging the entire motor control for information processing leads to a better network for us to utilize the different skills when we need to call upon them, when the stimulus arrived)
   • ***Random + model → study expose participants to a strong model of how to perform the task before each trial → resulted in worse learning (retention)… the random individuals who had to search for the right GMP is better, once you gave the powerful model to the participants at the beginning you were reducing engaging to motor control → reduced retention despite better acquisition
2. Elaboration hypothesis
   
   • Exposure to random trials causes formation of stronger, meaningful, and distinctive durable memories
     
     • Interviews from a study demonstrated that in a random exposure, the clients were able to make more meaningful distinctions between the type of motions they needed to do.

Question 10

What is the contextual interference principle?

Answer 10

• Contextual interference principle
• Learning is better when context changes variably (variable/random) as all aspects of motor control are taxed and practiced
• ***Limits = least useful for continuous tasks

Question 11

The specificity of practice?
Ideal …?

Whole vs part practice?
Ideal…?

Distributed vs mass practice?
Ideal: …?

Random vs blocked practice?
Ideal: …?

Variable vs constant practice?
Ideal: …?

Answer 11

Specificity of practice
Ideal: practice the target task in the target environment

Whole vs part practice
Ideal: whole to automate entire motor program

Distributed vs mass practice
Ideal: shorter sessions more frequent

Random vs blocked practice
Ideal: learn multiple skills, randomly mixed into practice

Variable vs constant practice
Ideal: practice variety start/end positions for skill = schema

Question 12

Generally the harder path of practice leads to…. ???

The easier path of practice (not ideal) leads to ….?

Answer 12

• Generally the harder path leads to:
  
  • Better retention
  • A scalable (flexible/transferable) motor program
  • Through engagement of entire information processing model
• The easier path (not ideal) leads to better practice performance but less retention
  
  • Caution a client needs:
  • Baseline level of performance before more complex practice

Question 13

For augmented feedback should it be provided all the time? If not, how should it be implemented? (In general, no need to go into summary/ average/ how many trials)

Answer 13

• Necessary for learning are mistakes
  
  • Intrinsic feedback: information as a natural consequence of actors movement (variety of sources can be attended to) → best type = match practice with real world conditions
  • Augmented feedback: information provided to the learner from other sources in addition to intrinsic feedback
  • THEREFORE, augmented feedback is better to be provided in the early phases of learning and relearning but it must be faded away.
    
    • Faded method:
      
      • Start with higher feedback ratio to improve performance on task
      • Taper down feedback as learner becomes more proficient with skill
    • Bandwidth method
      
      • Concept of tolerance threshold to provide feedback for higher magnitude error performance
      • Otherwise learning is motivated with good job or no feedback
      • Larger tolerance leads to better learning.

Question 14

What is knowledge of performance? What is the knowledge of results?

Answer 14

• Knowledge of performance - how the movement unfolded (internal)
  
  • It is better to give this type of feedback since it gives the idea of error to correct by self exploration
  • Example: golf … how the person’s arm were moving
• Knowledge of results - what was achieved (outcome/external)
  
  • Good: why? Could a different pattern be better? Does not necessarily describe success
  • Example: golf … did it go in the hole

Question 15

Compare internal vs external focus. Which is better for motor learning, and why?

Answer 15

• You may provide knowledge or results or knowledge of performance with either internal or external focus…
  
  • Internal focus - bend knee 90 degree
  • External focus -pretend you are sitting in a chair
• External focus is better → more realistic to what it is in the real world, therefore it has more transfer tasks.

Question 16

Compare the methods to “deliver feedback” concurrent vs delayed? Why must guidance be faded?

Answer 16

• Concurrent feedback
  
  • Delivered during movement task to correct movement online
  • Can include guidance - Hepatic or kinesthetic information to signal learner by “physical restriction of error” to prevent mistakes
• Terminal feedback
  
  • Delivered after movement
  • Feedback delay interval → interval of time after completion of movement to when feedback is provided
  • Feedback delay is okay, there is no need to provide feedback immediately → increased delay interval can increase learning
    
    • UNLESS feedback delay time is “filled” by a intervening or unrelated activity that breaks attention

*****TERMINAL FEEDBACK IS BETTER*****

• Why must guidance be faded?
  
  • Guidance must be faded since guidance is essentially an entirely different not specific task → there will be good acquisition but no retention since the individual does not need to pay as much attention to the task and therefore will not learn.

Question 17

How is self-evaluation helpful for motor learning?

Answer 17

• Learners evaluates performance and estimate self error will improve learning
• When individuals are able to force themselves to think about their own intrinsic feedback, it then becomes available for them for these motor control processes and they are also finally a feature that contains motor learning.
• Learning to use intrinsic feedback more effectively to be self sufficient as a learner and performer.