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Neuron Notes Flashcards

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1
Q

What are the major parts of the adult brain?

A
  • Cerebrum
  • Diencephalon
  • Cerebellum
  • Brain stem

The brain stem includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.

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2
Q

Describe the meningeal coverings surrounding the brain.

A
  • Dura mater
  • Arachnoid mater
  • Pia mater
    *

These membranes protect the CNS, blood vessels, and enclose venous sinuses.

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3
Q

How is cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) formed?

A

Produced by the choroid plexuses in the ventricles

Ependymal cells line the ventricles and are involved in CSF production.

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4
Q

Name the locations of the ventricles of the brain.

A
  • Lateral ventricles
  • Third ventricle
  • Fourth ventricle

The ventricles are filled with cerebrospinal fluid and are continuous with each other.

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5
Q

Describe the distribution of gray and white matter in the brain.

A
  • Gray matter: surface layer (cortex)
  • White matter: deeper layer (medulla)

White matter contains tracts or bundles of axons.

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6
Q

Identify the three subdivisions of the brain stem.

A
  • Midbrain
  • Pons
  • Medulla oblongata

Each subdivision has major structures that contribute to brain function.

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7
Q

What is the function of the cerebellum?

A

Balance and coordination

The cerebellum is involved in fine-tuning motor activities.

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8
Q

Name the three divisions of the diencephalon.

A
  • Thalamus
  • Hypothalamus
  • Epithalamus

Each division has specific functions related to sensory and autonomic control.

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9
Q

List the major lobes of the cerebral cortex.

A
  • Frontal lobe
  • Parietal lobe
  • Temporal lobe
  • Occipital lobe
  • Insula

Each lobe has distinct functions related to sensory processing and motor control.

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10
Q

Name the three classes of fiber tracts in the white matter of the cerebrum.

A
  • Association fibers
  • Commissural fibers
  • Projection fibers

These fibers connect different parts of the brain and spinal cord.

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11
Q

Describe the form and function of the basal nuclei.

A

Masses of gray matter involved in motor control

Basal nuclei help regulate voluntary movements.

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12
Q

What is the function of the limbic system?

A

Emotion and memory processing

The limbic system is involved in emotional responses and the formation of memories.

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13
Q

Describe the gross structure of the spinal cord.

A
  • Central canal
  • Gray matter
  • White matter

The spinal cord is organized into regions of gray and white matter.

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14
Q

Identify the regions of white matter and gray matter in a cross section through the spinal cord.

A
  • Gray matter: butterfly shape in center
  • White matter: surrounding the gray matter

The arrangement differs from that of the brain.

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15
Q

Describe the organization of the neurons in the gray matter of the spinal cord.

A
  • Dorsal horns
  • Ventral horns
  • Lateral horns

Each horn has specific functions related to sensory and motor pathways.

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16
Q

Identify the major ascending and descending tracts in the spinal cord.

A
  • Ascending: spinothalamic tract
  • Descending: corticospinal tract

These tracts carry sensory and motor information, respectively.

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17
Q

Explain the effects of spinal cord injury on sensation and motor function.

A

Loss of sensation and motor control below the injury site

Severity depends on the level and completeness of the injury.

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18
Q

Describe the signs and symptoms of concussions, strokes, and Alzheimer’s disease.

A
  • Concussions: headache, confusion
  • Strokes: sudden weakness, speech difficulties
  • Alzheimer’s: memory loss, cognitive decline

Each condition has distinct neurological implications.

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19
Q

Describe causes and consequences of congenital disorders: anencephaly, cerebral palsy, and spina bifida.

A
  • Anencephaly: absence of major brain structures
  • Cerebral palsy: motor function impairment
  • Spina bifida: spinal cord defect

These disorders can lead to significant developmental challenges.

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20
Q

Explain the effects of aging on brain structure.

A

Decreased volume and neuron loss

Aging can affect cognitive functions and increase the risk of neurodegenerative diseases.

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21
Q

What is the function of the blood-brain barrier (BBB)?

A

Protects brain cells from harmful substances

The BBB selectively allows nutrients to pass while excluding toxins.

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22
Q

True or false: The brain receives 15% of the blood and consumes 20% of the oxygen at rest.

A

TRUE

Despite being only 2% of body weight, the brain is highly metabolically active.

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23
Q

What happens during a brain bleed?

A

Increased intracranial pressure and potential brain displacement

Types include concussion, contusion, and hemorrhage.

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24
Q

The cerebrum is the center of _______.

A

intelligence and personality

It contains 75% of all neurons in the nervous system.

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25
What separates the **right and left hemispheres** of the cerebrum?
Longitudinal fissure ## Footnote The hemispheres are connected by the corpus callosum.
26
What are the **five lobes** of the cerebral hemispheres?
* Frontal * Parietal * Temporal * Occipital * Insula ## Footnote Each lobe has specific functions related to sensory processing and motor control.
27
What is the **primary motor cortex** located?
Precentral gyrus of the frontal lobe ## Footnote It is involved in voluntary muscle contraction.
28
The **Broca area** is involved in _______.
speech production ## Footnote It generates motor programs for speech in the left hemisphere.
29
What is the **prefrontal cortex** associated with?
Complex learning and higher thought functions ## Footnote It is involved in intelligence and social skills.
30
The **left hemisphere** of the brain generates a motor program for speech from muscles in which areas?
* Larynx * Tongue * Cheeks * Lips ## Footnote This program is transmitted to the primary motor cortex for speech production.
31
The **prefrontal cortex** contains the anterior association area involved in which functions?
* Complex learning abilities (cognition) * Higher thought functions * Perseverance * Mood * Intelligence * Social skills ## Footnote These functions are crucial for advanced cognitive processes.
32
The **parietal lobe** is involved in which sensory functions?
* General sense * Taste * Equilibrium * Visual processing ## Footnote It contains the primary somatosensory cortex and the primary gustatory cortex.
33
The **primary somatosensory cortex** allows for what ability?
Spatial discrimination ## Footnote It detects the location of stimulation and is represented as a sensory homunculus.
34
The **gustatory signals** are received by which area in the brain?
Primary gustatory cortex ## Footnote Located in the inferior end of the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe.
35
The **temporal lobe** is responsible for interpreting which senses?
* Hearing * Smell * Language ## Footnote It contains the primary auditory cortex and the primary olfactory cortex.
36
The **Wernicke area** is responsible for what function?
Recognition of spoken and written language ## Footnote It formulates phrases and transmits plans to the Broca area for speech production.
37
The **occipital lobe** is primarily involved in which sensory function?
Vision ## Footnote Visual signals are received by the primary visual cortex located in this lobe.
38
The **insula** has roles in which functions?
* Language * Sense of taste * Integrating visceral sensory information ## Footnote It lies deep to the parietal, frontal, and temporal lobes.
39
The **cerebral white matter** is responsible for what?
* Communication between cerebral areas * Communication between the cerebral cortex and lower CNS centers ## Footnote It consists of glia and myelinated nerve fibers organized into tracts.
40
What are the **three kinds of tracts** found in cerebral white matter?
* Association fibers * Commissural fibers * Projection fibers ## Footnote These tracts facilitate communication within the brain and between the brain and spinal cord.
41
The **basal nuclei** are involved in regulating which functions?
* Motor control * Cognition * Emotion ## Footnote They help program habitual or automatic sequences and set muscle tone.
42
Impairment of the **basal nuclei** can lead to which disorders?
* Parkinson disease * Huntington disease * Tourette Syndrome ## Footnote These disorders are characterized by uncontrollable body movements.
43
The **limbic system** is known as the __________.
emotional brain ## Footnote It functions in emotional aspects of behavior and memory, associating smells with emotions.
44
The **thalamus** serves as a relay station for which sensory impulses?
* All sensory impulses except smell ## Footnote It plays a key role in mediating sensation and motor activities.
45
The **hypothalamus** regulates which body functions?
* ANS activity * Body temperature * Food intake * Water balance * Thirst * Sleep-wake cycles * Endocrine function ## Footnote It is a major regulator of homeostasis.
46
The **epithalamus** contains which gland?
Pineal gland ## Footnote It secretes melatonin to influence diurnal cycles.
47
The **medulla oblongata** contains nuclei for which cranial nerves?
* VIII (cochlear and vestibular branches) * IX * X * XI * XII ## Footnote It is involved in vital reflexes such as heart rate and respiratory rate.
48
The **pons** connects which parts of the nervous system?
* Spinal cord * Brain ## Footnote It relays nerve impulses related to voluntary skeletal movements.
49
The **midbrain** regulates which reflexes?
* Auditory reflexes * Visual reflexes ## Footnote It contains the superior and inferior colliculi for these functions.
50
The **reticular formation** is responsible for what functions?
* Regulating muscle tone * Alerting the cortex to sensory signals * Maintaining consciousness ## Footnote It filters sensory information and modulates pain signals.
51
The **cerebellum** is involved in which aspects of movement?
* Monitoring intent for movement * Monitoring actual movement * Comparing intent with actual performance * Sending corrective signals ## Footnote It plays a role in learning new motor skills and maintaining balance.
52
The **spinal cord** serves as a conduction pathway for which types of impulses?
* Sensory impulses to the brain * Motor impulses to effectors ## Footnote It also processes reflexes and integrates neural information.
53
The **meninges** are protective coverings of the spinal cord. What are the three layers?
* Dura mater * Arachnoid mater * Pia mater ## Footnote Meningitis is the inflammation of these coverings.
54
The **dura mater** is characterized as what type of tissue?
Dense irregular connective tissue ## Footnote It forms the outermost layer around the spinal cord.
55
The **subarachnoid space** is filled with what substance?
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) ## Footnote This space is crucial for cushioning the spinal cord.
56
A **spinal tap** is used to remove cerebrospinal fluid from which space?
Subarachnoid space ## Footnote This procedure is used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes.
57
The **pia mater** anchors the spinal cord to which structures?
* Vertebral column * Coccyx ## Footnote It prevents excessive movement of the spinal cord.
58
What is the **innermost meninge** of the spinal cord?
pia mater ## Footnote The pia mater is a delicate, translucent membrane that closely follows the contours of the spinal cord.
59
What are the **fibrous extensions** of the pia mater that anchor the spinal cord?
* Denticulate ligaments * Terminal filum ## Footnote These structures prevent excessive movement of the spinal cord.
60
The **spinal cord** begins as a continuation of the __________.
medulla oblongata ## Footnote It terminates at about the second lumbar vertebra in an adult.
61
What are the **two enlargements** of the spinal cord responsible for?
* Cervical Enlargement: Origin of spinal nerves to arms * Lumbar Enlargement: Origin of spinal nerves to legs ## Footnote These enlargements serve as points of origin for nerves to the extremities.
62
What is the **tapered portion** of the spinal cord called?
conus medullaris ## Footnote It is located near L1-L2.
63
The **gray matter** of the spinal cord is shaped like what letter?
H ## Footnote It consists primarily of cell bodies of neurons and neuroglia.
64
What are the **three regions** that make up the gray matter?
* Dorsal (Posterior) Horn * Ventral (Anterior) Horn * Lateral Horn ## Footnote The lateral horn is present in the thoracic and superior lumbar regions.
65
What is the **central canal** in the spinal cord filled with?
cerebrospinal fluid ## Footnote It runs the length of the spinal cord.
66
What are the **major ascending tracts** in the spinal cord?
* Fasciculus gracilis & cuneatus * Spinothalamic tract ## Footnote These tracts carry sensory impulses to the brain.
67
What type of neurons are involved in **somatic sensory pathways**?
* First-order neurons * Second-order neurons * Third-order neurons ## Footnote These neurons relay information from somatic receptors to the primary somatosensory area.
68
True or false: **Proprioceptive signals** from below the head travel up the spinocerebellar tracts to the cerebellum.
TRUE ## Footnote These signals are an exception in the sensory pathways.
69
What are the **two types of paralysis** associated with spinal cord damage?
* Spastic paralysis (upper motor neuron damage) * Flaccid paralysis (lower motor neuron damage) ## Footnote Each type of paralysis has different causes and effects on muscle control.
70
What is **Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS)**?
A disease that attacks motor areas of the cerebral cortex and motor neurons ## Footnote It causes progressive muscle weakness due to degeneration of motor neurons.
71
What happens when there is damage to the **ventral root** or ventral horn?
Flaccid paralysis occurs ## Footnote This is due to the loss of nerve impulses to skeletal muscles.
72
What is the **function of the reticulospinal tracts**?
Control muscles of the upper and lower limbs, maintain posture and balance ## Footnote They provide input to lower motor neurons from motor centers in the brain.
73
What is the **anterior median fissure**?
A structure that penetrates the white matter of the spinal cord ## Footnote It divides the spinal cord into right and left sides.
74
What are **tracts** in the spinal cord?
Bundles of myelinated axons of motor and sensory neurons ## Footnote Each tract has a common origin or destination and carries similar information.
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