Organisational Psychology Flashcards

Question

Landry et al findings

Answer 1

- Hypothesis 1 - Ppts in the autonomy-supportive condition scored higher on performance (0.76) than ppts in the controlling condition (0.54). This supports hypothesis 1. - Hypothesis 2 - Ppts in the autonomy-supportive condition reported higher psychological needs satisfaction (5.79) compared to the controlling (5.39). - Hypothesis 2 - the indirect effects where psychological needs satisfaction acted as a mediator between the cond and the intrinsic motivation n between the cond n performance. However, the indirect effect of extrinsic motivation as a mediator between psychological need satisfaction n performance was not significant.

Answer 2

- Both hypotheses were supported - Presenting rewards in an autonomy-supportive (informal) way -> increased performance on tasks compared to rewards presented in a controlling way. - Rewards presented in an autonomy-supportive way -> increased needs satisfaction -> healthier forms of motivation due to ppl engaging in activities they'll be rewarded for

Answer 3

* Early and simple theories * search for a set of characteristics (or traits) that are held by effective leaders i.e. that are universal to all great leaders.

Answer 4

- Leaders are born and not made and possess a certain set of characteristics which are inherited - The greatest leaders arise when there is the greatest need. - philosopher Thomas Carlyle (1840) created the Great Man Theory, inspired by contemporary influential male leaders e.g. Shakespeare. - believed that a great person is human but was sent by God and ‘gifted with divine inspiration’.

Answer 5

Leaders are: * Charismatic: ability to attract or influence followers * Popular: form relationships / connections with other people * Sensitive to their environment: identify threats and risks as well as opportunities * Good communicators: inspire people through sharing their vision - Followers respect & adore the charismatic leader -> follow their guidance - set high performance standards for others & themselves

Answer 6

* A transformational leader is one that stimulates and inspires their followers to work harder to achieve a particular outcome. * concerned with needs of followers and aim to help them look at problems in a new way. * They become a role model for followers, allowing them to take greater ownership of their work & understand their own strengths & weaknesses.

Answer 7

* Response to the inability of universalist theories to isolate and measure the inherited characteristics needed to be a leader. * focuses on observed behaviours on how a person must behave to be a successful leader

Answer 8

- Researched how people behaved when they were leading a group or organisation -> asked employees to complete a questionnaire about their leaders. - questionnaire: workers had to indicate how many times a leader had engaged in a particular behaviour - initial research -> produced the Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire (LBDQ) -> 150 statements about leadership behaviour - The LBDQ was completed by workers in the military, education and industry

Answer 9

2 behaviour clusters of leadership: * Initiating (structural) behaviours: Task-related behaviours where leader gives structure to the workforce - Set clear expectations for followers - Coordinate work tasks within the group - Enable feedback through the use of feedback inc constructive criticism * Few uncertainties for employees. extreme behaviour of this type -> leader making all decisions for their workers -> no worker autonomy & punishing those who do not meet expectations. * Consideration (nurturing) behaviours: People-related behaviours where leader focus on r/s and wellbeing of employees - Listening to workers n other members of the org - Being friendly, supportive and available for workers - Seeing ppl as equal and treating them w/ respect * leader will work on trust between themselves & others. look to create supportive, warm r/s within team. * seek members' strengths & weaknesses and help them grow.

Answer 10

* Michigan University explored leadership behaviour by looking at its impact on small groups. Starting with interviews, a questionnaire similar to the LBDQ was formulated. * 2 types of leadership behaviour: - Employee orientation: leader sees human beings as people, valuing them as individuals & ensuring that they pay attention to their personal needs. - Production orientation: looks at technical & production elements of the job. Workers = means to an end, exist to get the work done.

Answer 11

found that employee orientation was more effective than production orientation behaviour -> opposite to the Ohio university findings.

Answer 12

1. With adaptive challenges, problem-solving should be shared between leaders & their workforce in order to find the solution. 2. To adapt, leaders should question workers to see the reality to combat issues that arise despite how distressing changes e.g. new roles, can be.

Answer 13

1. get on the balcony 2. identify the adaptive challenges 3. regulate distress 4. maintain disciplined attention 5. give work back to the ppl 6. protect voices of leadership from below

Answer 14

* Muczyk and Reimann (1987) believed that there are 5 dimensions that can be applied to leadership; * suggested that 2 of them: participation and direction were situation dependent. * leaders may choose different approaches to how they make decisions e.g. how much participation the workforce has in the decision-making process & how they r carried out, e.g. the amount of direction (or control) over how the decision is executed, depending on the situation. * suggested that culture plays a huge part: most studies & theories abt leadership r US-researched - assumes that leaders everywhere should act in an US-preferred way: 1 consisting of democratic leadership and individual autonomy. * they used a ‘contingency and situational’ construct for different cultures -> autocratic and directive elements of leadership may be needed in non-US societies.

Answer 15

1. Directive autocrat = no employee participation in decision-making & more close monitoring on execution. Efficient for crises where quick decision-making is needed. 2. Permissive autocrat = no employee participation in decision-making but less close monitoring over execution of workers' decisions. Efficient for crises, but applied to a structured workplace w/ autonomous workers who could complete their tasks. 3. Directive democrat = more employee participation in decision making & more close monitoring of workers who are then executing that decision. Workers could take part in the decision-making process, but are supervised in the execution. Appropriate for non-complex tasks. 4. Permissive democrat = more employee participation in decision-making & no close monitoring during the execution of the decision. Only for matured orgs. Workers participate in decision-making & have autonomy in execution.

Answer 16

* leader’s actions in a group setting, e.g. a meeting or trying to influence an organisation. * 34 behaviours need to be addressed during public leadership & are grouped into 5 categories: 1. setting the vision 2. ensuring unity of purpose 3. achieving the group task 4. building trust and a sense of togetherness 4. creating peer pressure to ensure high performance standards. * aim to set group goals & make sure the job is completed.

Answer 17

* One on one handling of group * Knew team spirit is essential + all groups have different lvls of self-confidence, resilience, experience & motivation * All members need individual attention * 14 different behaviours into 2 categories: - Individual behaviours: appraisal, disciplining, goal-setting, & reviewing - Individual building and maintenance: r/s building n assessment of ppl’s talents, commitment, competence

Answer 18

* This is shown by their leadership, presence, technical ability, attitudes and self-mastery -> most influential of the 3 levels, driving a leader’s emotional intelligence, impact, skill, judgement & insight. * Personal leadership's 3 categories 1. Technical: Updating skills e.g. time management, individual n group psychology. Practising skills that support public & private behaviours. 2. Attitude towards others: believing people as equally important as oneself -> determines how much they trust you as a leader. 3. Self-mastery: Working on self-awareness in order to let go of outdated beliefs, connect w/ ur values and act authentically in the service of those you lead.

Answer 19

* Women being underrepresented in leadership roles - women were suggested to be less effective * Eagly & Johnson 1990 investigated whether leadership is gender stereotypical - women being more democratic + permissive leaders compared to men * Men evaluating women who adopt more autocratic/male leadership style obtain poorer evaluations * This was not the case vice versa * Research showed that men were effective at stereotypical male activities & women vice versa * Also, males tended to favour men more than women when they were evaluators, but female evaluators showed no preference * **Role congruity theory of prejudice** towards female leaders, which is where men & women are evaluated less favourably when they are selected to perform tasks which are not congruent with their gender. * As leadership roles tend to be male sex-typed, women are treated less favourably

Answer 20

To verify experimentally one of the assumptions of the role congruity theory of prejudice towards female leaders: that women who occupy leadership roles are evaluated less favourably than men when they adopt stereotypically masculine styles.

Answer 21

* Female leaders will receive less favourable evaluations when adopting stereotypically-male leadership styles - autocratic & task-oriented * Male leaders will not receive less favourable evaluations when adopting stereotypically-female leadership styles - democratic, relationship-oriented and individualised * Female leaders will receive worse evaluations from male evaluators than female ones * Male leaders will not receive worse evaluations from female evaluators than male ones

Answer 22

* 136 second-year social psychology students from the National Open University of Spain * 53% women, 47% men * Mean age: 29 years * Each participant was randomly assigned to each experimental condition (34 in each group * Participants received credit for their participation

Answer 23

* Experimental design with **4 experimental conditions** * Dependent variables were measured using **structured questionnaires**

Answer 24

1. Prior to the start of the study all participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: * Female leader with a male stereotypical leadership style (autocratic/task-oriented) * Male leader with a male stereotypical leadership style (autocratic/task-oriented) * Female leader with a female stereotypical leadership style (democratic/relationship-oriented) * Male leader with a female stereotypical leadership style (democratic/relationship-oriented) 2. There were 34 participants in each condition 3. Study uses a narrative (written account) which describes a leader’s behaviour in an organisational setting to investigate their hypotheses. 4. The narrative in the study was especially written for the research, and manipulated the leader’s sex and leadership style. 5. Participants were told to imagine they were part of an emergency service in a public hospital * Chosen as it is a gender-neutral setting, but within the setting there are doctors (stereotypical masculine role) and nurses (stereotypical female role) 6. Participants were asked to evaluate a supervisor who was occupying that position for a trial period 7. The narrative described the supervisor’s behaviour, with the only differences being the sex and leadership style 8. After reading the narrative, participants completed an anonymous questionnaire where they were told would help with the evaluation process. 9. Questionnaire included a number of different measures: * A list of 14 adjectives (7 positive, 7 negative). Participants rated the degree to which they thought the words were applicable to the supervisor using a 7-point rating scale (1 = never, 7 = always). * Leadership effectiveness of supervisor was measured using a 7 point rating scale (1 = totally negative/disagree, 7 = totally positive/agree) * Five items were used, including: “How would you evaluate X’s general achievement as a supervisor?” * Supervisor’s leadership capacity was measured with a 7-point rating scale (1 = totally negative/disagree, 7 = totally positive/agree) * Four items were used, including: “X is a competent supervisor”, “How would you evaluate X’s general leadership capacity?” 10. A pilot study using 40 participants was carried out before the main study to test all aspects of the investigation. 11. Participants evaluated the different versions of the narrative as credible, concise, true and clear

Answer 25

1. Independent of sex, leaders who adopt a **stereotypically female leadership** obtain s**ignificantly more favourable evaluations** on all 3 dependent variables. *Leadership style of stereotypically female score in*: * Adjective list: **5.51** * Leadership capacity: **5.48** * Leadership efficacy: **5.41** 2. Both males and females received considerably **less favourable evaluations** when **male stereotypical leadership styles** were adopted **Therefore the results don’t support Hypothesis 1** 3. **No differences in evaluations** received by male and female leaders when they adopted **stereotypical female styles** **Therefore results support Hypothesis 2** * However, care needs to be taken with these results as **neither sex was evaluated unfavorably** when adopting gender incongruent styles. 4. **Mean evaluation value** of leaders were **virtually identical in males and females** on all 3 dependent valuables 5. The evaluations made by men and women were also similar on the 3 dependent variables **Therefore results don’t support Hypothesis 3 and 4** 6. No significant difference in evaluation when looking at interaction between sex and style.

Answer 26

* Female leaders **don’t receive less favourable evaluations **than males when using **stereotypically male leadership styles** * Males **don’t favour leaders of their own sex** * Stereotypically female leadership styles are **more valued** than stereotypically male leadership styles in modern organisations.

Answer 27

1. **Measurements used for dependent variables produced quantitative data** * E.g. Rating scales were used to measure leadership effectiveness, leadership capacity and the adjective list * Quantitative data is objective, not subject to interpretation, therefore more reliable 2. **Uses a standardised procedure** * E.g. each participant received the same narrative, with the only difference being the manipulated variables * They were also given the same measurements for the dependent variables and the same instructions * Means that the study can be replicated easily and therefore tested for reliability

Answer 28

1.** Artificiality of task used in study (lack of mundane realism)** * E.g. a narrative/written account was used, may not accurately reflect the true dynamics of a workplace and other variables which may come into evaluations, and there were also no consequences to the evaluations given * Suggests that validity of task is low, not applicable to real life 2. **Sample may not be representative of wider population** * E.g. although participant numbers were relatively large, they were also psychology students from one university in Spain * A weakness, as psychology students may have more knowledge about the theoretical basis of thes tudy * May be that the results may not be replicated in other countries with different cultural norms. * Means that generalisability of results may be low

Answer 29

***Strength:*** * There were no real ethical concerns with this study. * All data remained confidential, although **knowing that all participants were on a second year social psychology course may have led them to be more identifiable**. * There was no potential for harm as this was a narrative task rather than a real-life situation, with no consequences for any manager or worker. ***Weakness:*** * All participants received credit for completion, so some may have felt pressured to continue even if they did not want to, raising the ethical question of the right to withdraw.

Answer 30

* good application to everyday life, as it showed that stereotypical female management styles were evaluated more highly and seen as more ettective than stereotypical male leadership styles. * can be applied in the workforce and training targeted to ensure that managers, and potential managers, are aware of the different styles and how to get the best out of their workforce.

Answer 31

**Situational:** * study takes investigates the role congruent theory of prejudice. * A female behaving in a stereotypically male way (incongruent of their gender) would make them likely to be evaluated poorly, as the behaviour is contradicts the perceived role of a woman which is more democratic and relationship-oriented.

Answer 32

* Cuadrado broke down leadership effectiveness and capacity into rating scales and also a series of adjectives, which they also rated as being applicable to a novel scenario. * doesn't give any insight into individual reasons behind rating an individual in a certain way and is, therefore, reductionist

Answer 33

**Nomothetic:** * nomothetic approach to the study of gender and leadership, as they use **experimental methodology** including the use of structured questionnaires to measure the dependent variables. * This type of approach ensures standardization of method, but also provides very little detailed information about why participants evaluated the leaders as they did. * An idiographic approach, where qualitative methods were used, including the use of unstructured questionnaires and interviews, would give the researchers more insight into the reasons behind the evaluations given.

Answer 34

* they rejected the idea that **leadership traits are inherited** and only certain people can become leaders (nurture) * 5 practices of exemplary leadership: (MICEE) 1. **Model** the way: clarify values by finding your voice and set the example 2. **Inspire** a shared vision: envision the future by imagining exciting possibilities. 3. **Challenge** the process: find opportunities by seizing the initiative and take risks by constantly generating small wins 4. **Enable** others to act: foster collaboration 5. **Encourage** the heart: show appreciation for excellence, create spirit of community * LPI is a psychometric test using a questionnaire. There are 2 parts to the LPI: — triangulation * **LPI self:** completed by the leader who rates themselves on the frequency they believe they engage in specific behaviours * **LPI observer: **completed by up to 10 people (both superiors and followers) who rate the frequency they believe the leader engages in specific behaviours (360° feedback). **Scale of LPI:** * **30 questions** rated on a 10-point scale from 1 (almost never) to 10 (almost always). * The respondents can then see their results, and how they compare with the average rating of other people. * Some of the statements included are: 1. Sets a personal example of what is expected (Model) 3. Seeks challenging opportunities to test skills (Challenge) 7. Describe a compelling image of the future (Inspire) 10. Expresses confidence in people’s abilities (Encourage) 14. Treats people with dignity and respect (Enable)

Answer 35

1. **Conformist** * depend on the leader for inspiration and are usually totally obedient and never question orders. * Bosses weak in self-confidence seem to like and form alliances with them but they can cause an organisation to lose enthusiasm and initiative. * They score **high on active participation** but **low on independent critical thinking.** 2. **Alienated** * critical and independent in their thinking but **passive when they are performing their job**. * There has often been an event within their role that has turned them against their job such as being passed over for promotion or just being in the same job too long. * They have become **cynical, negative and resentful**, but do not very often openly go against their boss and are happy just to whisper on the sidelines. 3. **Effective** * carry out their duties with enthusiasm and assertiveness. * risk-takers and problem-solvers, and often get high approval ratings from fellow workers and leaders. * They will challenge a leader if they disagree with a decision and will provide alternative solutions. 4. **Passive** * **lack initiative and a sense of responsibility**. * They will perform the tasks asked of them but then they will stop. * They score **low in independent thinking** and they are **passive in terms of participation**. 5. **Pragmatic survivors** * they see how things are at any one moment and can shift their type of followership depending on what is needed at the time. * often seen as an ‘early warning system’ in an organisation and often can see things going bad before others can. * best at surviving change in the organisation.

Organisational Psychology Flashcards

(59 cards)