1
Q
Unsuccessful places:
social deprivation includes:
A
- education
- health
- crime
- access to services
- living environment
2
Q
CASE STUDY - DETROIT:
A
18% of adults have a college degree
10.7% of people in Detroit are white
7/10 crimes go unsolved
80,000 buildings are abandoned
It takes an average of 58 minutes for police to respond to calls
3
Q
Education:
A
- Financial Constraints:
Impact: Families facing job losses often struggle with financial constraints, making it difficult to afford educational expenses.
Consequence: This can lead to reduced access to educational resources, including tutoring, extracurricular activities, and educational materials. - Educational Inequality:
Impact: Economic decline may exacerbate existing educational inequalities, with disadvantaged families experiencing a greater impact.
Consequence: Quality of education may suffer, contributing to a cycle of generational disadvantage. - Reduced Educational Opportunities:
Impact: Schools in economically distressed areas may face budget cuts, leading to a reduction in educational programs and extracurricular activities.
Consequence: Students may miss out on important opportunities for skill development and personal growth.
4
Q
. Health:
A
- Strained Healthcare Systems:
Impact: Economic decline can strain healthcare systems, leading to a shortage of medical professionals, reduced funding, and limited access to healthcare facilities.
Consequence: Increased wait times, limited preventive care, and challenges in managing chronic conditions contribute to declining - health indicators.
Mental Health Challenges:
Impact: High stress levels due to economic uncertainties can contribute to mental health challenges within communities.
Consequence: Increased rates of anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues further strain healthcare resources. - Limited Access to Healthy Lifestyle Choices:
Impact: Economic decline may limit access to healthy food options, recreational facilities, and wellness programs.
Consequence: This can contribute to an increase in lifestyle-related health issues, such as obesity and cardiovascular diseases.
5
Q
Crime:
A
- Unemployment and Crime:
Impact: High unemployment rates create conditions conducive to criminal activities as individuals may resort to illegal means to meet their needs.
Consequence: Increased property crimes, theft, and other illicit activities can negatively impact community safety. - Social Stressors:
Impact: Economic decline introduces social stressors, contributing to heightened tensions within communities.
Consequence: Increased interpersonal conflicts and community tensions may manifest in elevated crime rates. - Reduced Policing Resources:
Impact: Economic decline may lead to budget cuts, reducing resources available for law enforcement.
Consequence: Limited policing resources can result in challenges in crime prevention and response.
6
Q
Access to Services:
A
- Transportation Challenges:
Impact: Economic decline can lead to reduced public transportation services, impacting the ability of residents to commute for work, education, and healthcare.
Consequence: Limited transportation options can isolate communities and hinder access to essential services. - Utilities and Infrastructure:
Impact: Declining economic conditions may result in reduced investment in infrastructure maintenance, affecting utilities such as water and electricity.
Consequence: Infrastructure decay can compromise the overall quality of life and safety within affected communities. - Social Services Reduction:
Impact: Economic downturns may prompt governments to cut funding for social services, affecting programs related to welfare, childcare, and community support.
Consequence: Vulnerable populations may experience heightened challenges without adequate social support.
7
Q
Living Environment:
A
- Housing Decay:
Impact: Economic decline may lead to a lack of investment in housing maintenance and renovation.
Consequence: Deteriorating housing conditions can result in health hazards, reduced property values, and diminished community pride. - Infrastructure Neglect:
Impact: Reduced resources may lead to neglect in maintaining essential infrastructure such as roads, bridges, and public spaces.
Consequence: Infrastructure decay can contribute to safety concerns, hinder economic activities, and reduce the overall appeal of the living environment. - Community Decline:
Impact: Economic decline can lead to a decline in community engagement and a sense of collective well-being.
Consequence: A diminished sense of community can further exacerbate social issues and impede efforts to address shared challenges.
8
Q
Urban places
p1
A
- Success is either due to market forces, as places compete in our globalised world, and/or from government-led regeneration policies.
- London and the South East is a good example of this, benefiting from its function as the capital but also enhanced by successive government polices to protect its competitive status, such as the Thames Gateway, the 2012 Olympic Games and Heathrow expansion plans.
- The fact that a place is popular shows it is viewed as largely attractive to people.
- Meanwhile, large cities such as Birmingham and Bristol have developed strong service and financial sector economies, following the lead of London.
- People with lower incomes living in successful places will be especially disadvantaged from the higher cost of living and property prices, however.
- Another negative externality is that skills shortages may result from success, as seen across the UK in the sectors of IT, technology, creative, finance, engineering, plumbing, building and caring.
- This reflects a history of low take up educationally in these subjects, past government restrictions on skilled immigrants and, in London, inflated living costs.
9
Q
Urban places
p2
A
- The Place Context on San Francisco and later content on rural commuter villages illustrates this paradoxical situation of success with negative spinoffs.
- The official ONS Well-Being Index and IMD deprivation index quantifies ‘success’ while independent surveys give more subjective perceptions.
- The annual Halifax Rural Quality of Life Survey and Sunday Times Index reveal some interesting regional scores:
- Southern areas have higher ratings for weekly earnings, the weather, health and life expectancy.
- Northern areas rate well on education in terms of grades and smaller class sizes, lower house prices in relation to earnings, and lower traffic flows and population densities.
10
Q
Rural places p1
A
The 2011 census showed that rural places generally were experiencing a reversal of a 250-year trend of urban areas dominating jobs, wages and productivity:
* Some small villages and towns such as Worcester have been growing faster than many larger urban areas, both in terms of population and economic output.
Top of the Halifax survey list was Rutland in the East Midlands.
* Although affected by the global economic crisis, rural areas in general have lower rates of unemployment and insolvencies, with the exception of some ex-mining settlements. There has been much growth in smaller and micro businesses (under ten employees), and home working is more important than in urban areas. Higher-value food products are booming, as are leisure and tourism.
11
Q
Rural places p2
A
- Accessible and ‘attractive’ rural communities have seen in-migration of young families, commuters and retirees.
- This counter-urbanisation reverses the long-term trend of net out-migration from the countryside to urban areas.
- Transport and technology innovations, especially mobile networks, and government investment in high-speed broadband has allowed more highly skilled professionals to live in attractive rural locations.
12
Q
Social consequences of inequality
Reduced
A
Trust in people with positions of power, especially police and planners
Social and civic participation
Educational attainment and training
Social mobility
Attachment to place
13
Q
Social consequences of inequality Increased
A
- Segregation of different socioeconomic groups, property damage and violent crime
- Health issues: either because of lack of wealth, access to care or more deliberate lifestyle choices
- Higher infant mortality and shorter longevity
- Status competition, which drives less-affluent people into debt to keep up with a peer group practising a higher level of consumerism
14
Q
Urban decline
A
- In the UK, places like Hartlepool, a former shipbuilding and steel town in Teesside with an unemployment rate twice the national average (thirteen per cent), struggle with their Rust Belt legacy.
- Over a quarter of Hartlepool’s high street shops are empty, showing the lack of spending power in the area.
- There is a marked North-South and urban divide in success.
- The Centre for Cities research group sees the take up of knowledge economy employment as pivotal.
- Figure 16.2 illustrates the four main groups of cities in the UK, plotting lower-knowledge industries in 1911, most affected by deindustrialisation, against private knowledge-intensive business services (KIBS) jobs in 2013.
- The size of the circles shows job growth changes:
- Reinventor cities
- Replicator cities
15
Q
Reinventor cities
A
have changed their economic base successfully by encouraging IT and digital media, have higher wages, graduate workers, new businesses and productivity.
16
Q
- Replicator cities
A
- replaced cotton mills with call centres and dock yards with distribution centres and are less sustainable.
- They tend to have a higher share of workers with low qualifications and a working age population claiming benefits.
- There is a distinct geographical pattern reflecting the difficulty in changing the legacy of a Rust Belt: 30 out of the 41 cities called ‘replicators’ in Figure 16.2 are in the North, Midlands or Wales, while eleven of the sixteen ‘reinventors’ are in the South.
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Q
Key concept: Rust Belt
A
- The term was coined in the 1980s in the USA in reference to the once-powerful manufacturing region that stretched from the Great Lakes to the Midwest, famous for steel and car production.
- It fell into economic decline following automation, global shift and increased free trade.
- Rust Belt refers to the concentration of problems associated with the loss of core employment and large scale deindustrialisation of manufacturing areas, characterised by derelict buildings and land.
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Q
Rust Belts and urban divides
A
- Some towns and cities have adapted since deindustrialisation and city authorities have managed to attract growth services and knowledge-based jobs, for example Pittsburgh in the USA and Manchester in the UK.
- However, many, such as Chicago, have struggled and are now characterised by increasing poverty, declining population and are even near bankruptcy, for example Detroit.
- In the UK, Bristol, with 39 per cent of its population having a degree, is more attractive to knowledge-based investors than Doncaster, with only 23 per cent being graduates.
- Teesside, with its declining steel industry, may well develop into a mini version of the American Rust Belt.
19
Q
Rural decline
A
- Unlike urban places, rural areas do not have as many environmental issues, a lack of green space or conflicts centred on ethnicity.
- Decline centres instead on a faster ageing population than in urban places; remote rural communities continue to struggle with the outmigration of young people.
- Whole regions may be classed as relatively unsuccessful, such as mainly rural Cornwall.
- ‘Two countrysides’ exist often side by side, and place perceptions by residents are likely to vary:
20
Q
‘Two countrysides’ exist often side by side, and place perceptions by residents are likely to vary:
A
- Better-connected, well-off and growing places, such as the Itchen Valley in Hampshire, contrast markedly
with less well-off remoter agricultural places such Llansilin on the Welsh border, or places once dominated by mining. - Locally, many pockets of deprivation may be ‘hidden” statistically, made up of a few houses, or streets Or a small estate in even the most affluent of urban fringe villages or more remote settlements.
21
Q
Struggling rural areas: Cornwall
A
- Cornwall is famous for its tourist function, with hotspots such as Newquay and Padstow.
- As a whole, the county is not deprived; however, there are neighbourhoods like Redruth with such consistently high levels of deprivation that they receive European development funding (ERDF).
- In 2014 average wages were £14,300 annually compared with £23,300 in-the UK (Eurostat).
- This puts it in the top ten most deprived places in Western Europe.
- Up to40 per cent of households live on less than £10,000 a year.
- The relative wealth of the region is depressed further because of the high cost of living, so residents have less spending power than most of the UK and Europe.
- The loss of its mining industry and contraction agriculture and fishing sectors are all important causes the spiral of decline in Cornwall
22
Q
spiral of decline
A
23
Q
Key concept: Social segregation and residential sorting
A
-These are a common feature of inequalities.
-Low-income households tend to seek out communities that provide lower-cost housing and have higher social welfare spending.
-Higher income groups similarly cluster together and, if they move into a previously lower income location, may gentrify it.
* sink estates and declining rural settlements needing the greatest regeneration efforts
* gated communities and commuter villages with lower priorities.
24
Q
Sink Estates:
A
These are housing estates characterised by high levels of economic and social deprivation and crime, especially domestic violence, drugs and gangs.
Their priorities include;
Enhance sports facilities e.g. Middlesbrough College
Reduce crime and increase feel of community
Housing
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CASE STUDY - SINK ESTATE - HULME (MANCHESTER):
In 1991 unemployment was 39% and 51% of that was long - term employment
60% of people are dependent on income support
81% of people don't own a car
74% of adults left school at 17
The average house price is £161,000
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Commuter Villages:
These are settlements that have a proportion of the population living in them, but who commute out daily or weekly usually to larger settlements either nearby or further away.
Their priorities include;
Building new houses
Invest in public transport and services
Have better broadband
Have better rail connections
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CASE STUDY - COMMUTER VILLAGE - YATE (BRISTOL:
12 miles away from Bristol town centre
It takes 49 minutes by bus to get to Bristol
It takes 22 minutes by train to get to Bristol
The average house price is £211, 500
It has a population of 21,700 and 6914 are aged between 21 - 44
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Gated Communities:
They are found in urban and rural settlements, as either individual buildings or groups of houses.
They are landscapes of surveillance, with CCTV and security guards.
They are designed to deter access by unknown people and reduce crime. Their priorities include;
* Reduce crime
* Segregate incomers who may pose a threat
* Increase security
* Maintain the value of their properties
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CASE STUDY - GATED COMMUNITY - HIDDEN HILLS (LA):
Covers an area of 1.7 miles
Has a population of 1856
Mean household income of $200,000
Mean house price is $1,000,000
Since 2001 there has not been a murder, rape or arson attack
87.4% of people are white
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Declining rural settlements:
- refer to rural areas or villages that are experiencing a sustained decrease in population, economic activity, and overall vitality over an extended period.
- Several factors contribute to the decline of rural settlements, and the term is often used to describe communities facing challenges such as depopulation, economic stagnation, and a decline in essential services.
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CASE STUDY Deprivation in remote areas: Llansilin in Powys
- The 2011 census showed Powys, Wales, had 46.8 percent of rural communities within the most 'access to service' deprived ten per cent in the country.
- This was measured by services such as banks and average travel time to get to a food shop, GP surgery and pharmacy, primary and secondary school, post office, public library, leisure centre and to a petrol station.
- Cars are an essential element of life.
The village of Llansilin, on the Welsh-Shropshire under 700, typifies these characteristics.
It has considerably less broadband and mobile phone coverage than the Itchen Valley in Hampshire.
- Zoopla's ZED Index for average house prices here was £230,076 in 2015.
- For every other indicator on the Welsh Index of Multiple Deprivation, this area scored in the 50 per cent least deprived in Wales (community safety, housing, health, employment and, especially, environment were good).
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The wealth corridor of the Itchen Valley, Winchester: A retirement and commuter community
- This accessible rural place, with around 1900 residents in four adjacent villages, lies at the western end of the South Downs National Park.
- Its conserved scenic and ecological value, based on the meadows of the River Itchen, rolling chalk downland and picturesque settlements, are great attractions.
- Its location, a few miles from Winchester, the M3 and fast mainline rail services to London means that it has become a commuter hotspot over the past few decades.
- The influx of younger families has breathed new life into the local school and four pubs in the valley.
- However, it has also meant that house and land prices have rocketed, and the few remaining farmworkers have children unable to afford local housing.
- Zoopla's ZED Index (average house prices) in 2015 for England as a whole was £298,313.
- The Itchen Valley postcode's value was £588,882, more expensive than in Winchester (£505,039) and close to London prices (£636,172).
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wide variations in levels of engagement in local communities
local and national election turnout, development and support for local community groups
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Civic Engagement:
The ways in which people participate in their community in order to improve the quality of life for others, or to shape their community's future.
Examples of civic engagement include voting, volunteering or being on the Parish Council.
35
Varying levels of engagement:
Low - Levels of political engagement:
- This is people of low - class who are categorised as the DE category.
- These people will have low levels of commitment, because they feel like they will not be listened to, so therefore will not understand how it could affect them.
- They also feel like the government policies have no relevance to themselves so will then not vote, so therefore have less involvement.
Only 39% of people in the DE category vote.
36
High - Levels of political engagement:
- This can be people who are elderly.
- They have high levels of engagement as they are more politically aware so feel their opinions will be voiced.
- As the elderly people are the most civically engaged, the politicians and parties will aim their policies to suit the older people.
- More older people will then vote.
- 65% of people over the age of 65 are civically engaged.
- It can also be people, who are in the Upper class.
- This is also known as the AB group, with 63% of people in the AB category voting.
- This means that these people feel that they have an influence on the results of the election.
- The policies will also be aimed at them, so will encourage more people in the AB category to vote.
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Election turnout:
National elections facts:
- The Electoral Commission recorded that 7.5 million eligible voters were not registered in 2015.
- Poor, black and young people in urban areas are least likely to be on the electoral roll.
- Of eligible voters registered, 66.1 percent did not cast a vote.
- The 2014 vote for Scottish independence, however, attracted 84.5 percent of the electorate.
- Traditionally, rural voters are more supportive of the Conservative and Liberal parties, and tend to have higher turnouts in elections than urban voters.
- The UK has one of the largest differences in voter turnout between the young and old in Europe with only 44 percent of 18 to 24 year olds voting in 2015.
- These general points may be tested by comparing two very contrasting constituencies.
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Local elections:
- In 2014, local election turnout was only about 36% , and a mere 15% voted during the Police and Crime Commissioner elections in 2012.
- Such results have triggered calls for compulsory voting at local and national level.
- In a digital age, voting online will undoubtedly revolutionise voting habits.
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Community groups:
- Support for local community groups varies across the country, depending on local willingness to participate and the main aim of the group.
- These range from committees running local allotments, open spaces and nature reserves to village shops and more powerful and vociferous 'NIMBY' (not in my back yard) groups protesting over planned developments such as new housing, fracking and wind farms.
- There are many groups focused on fundraising and helping more vulnerable people in the local community, such as meals on wheels, transport to hospitals and friendship groups.
- Residents in an estate may form a group, and can be effective in reducing antisocial behaviour.
- Regeneration relies on community participation at all stages.
- There are some 9000 grant organisations - including the government, National Lottery, supermarket chains and charities - that may be able to help with basic administration and running costs.
- The Cabinet Office website has many examples of the partnership approach fostered by the government, and how crowdsourcing is encouraged by online investment.
- Charitable status is also an important funding mechanism.
- The internet has made information and support for such groups much more accessible.
- The voluntary sector has also been effective in youth mentoring schemes, addiction treatment centres and welfare-to-work organisations.
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