1
Q
Lived experience:
A
The actual experience of living in a particular place or environment.
Such experience can have a profound impact on a person’s perceptions and values, as well as on their general development and their outlook on the world.
2
Q
Attachment to, places varies according to:
A
Age
Ethnicity
Gender
length of residence (new migrants, students)
levels of deprivation
3
Q
Age:
A
- especially if combined with length of residence in a place
- Younger Individuals:
Sense of Exploration: Younger individuals, especially adolescents and young adults, may have a stronger sense of exploration and may be more open to change, leading to a less entrenched attachment to a specific place.
Educational and Career Opportunities: Younger people may feel a stronger attachment to places that offer educational and career opportunities, influencing their sense of belonging. - Older Individuals:
Rootedness: Older individuals, especially those who have spent a significant portion of their lives in a particular place, may develop a deeper sense of rootedness and attachment to the familiar surroundings.
Social Networks: Long-term relationships and established social networks can contribute to a stronger sense of place attachment among older individuals.
4
Q
. Ethnicity:
A
: non-white British may differ in their views because of local antipathy or acceptance;
older generations may feel just as British as their white counterparts
- Cultural Identity:
Ethnic Enclaves: Individuals from specific ethnic backgrounds may form close-knit communities, fostering a sense of attachment to a particular neighbourhood or region where cultural identity is celebrated.
Heritage and Tradition: Ethnic communities often have a strong connection to places where cultural heritage and traditions are preserved. - Integration:
Adaptation: Individuals from different ethnic backgrounds who have successfully integrated into a new community may develop a sense of attachment to the adopted place.
Cultural Diversity: Places that embrace and celebrate cultural diversity may foster attachment among individuals from various ethnic backgrounds.
5
Q
Gender:
A
despite modern equality measures, women may still feel less able to go to the pub alone; women or men may also be more active in their local community if home with children.
Community Roles:
Familial Attachment: Women, often fulfilling caregiving roles, may
develop strong attachments to places where family and community ties are central.
Professional Opportunities: Men, influenced by career opportunities, may feel a strong attachment to places offering employment and professional growth.
Safety and Accessibility:
Perceptions of Safety: Women may place higher importance on the safety and security of a place in influencing their attachment.
Accessibility: Men may be more influenced by the accessibility of amenities and services in a place.
6
Q
. Length of Residence (New Migrants, Students):
A
new migrants and students may have less strong attachments than longstanding locals
New Migrants:
Integration Challenges: New migrants may initially face challenges in forming attachments as they navigate the process of cultural adaptation.
Formation of Migrant Communities: Over time, new migrants may form communities that provide a sense of belonging and attachment.
Students:
Temporary Attachment: Students may develop temporary attachments to the places where they study, influenced by the duration of their academic program.
Peer Networks: Attachments may form around peer networks and shared experiences, contributing to a sense of belonging during the student period.
7
Q
. Levels of Deprivation:
A
higher levels may be associated with anti-establishment views; those in temporary accommodation or rented housing may feel less ‘at home’ than owner occupiers
- Economic Stability:
Economic Opportunities: Individuals in economically stable areas may develop strong attachments based on the availability of employment, economic stability, and access to amenities.
Struggle and Resilience: Individuals in economically deprived areas may still form attachments, driven by a sense of community, shared struggle, and resilience. - Community Resources:
Access to Services: The availability of quality healthcare, education, and public services can significantly influence attachment to a place.
Social Capital: Deprived areas with strong social capital and community support may foster deep attachments despite economic challenges.
8
Q
Marginalisation, exclusion and social polarisation
p1
A
- Socially, people and groups may be marginalised or pushed out to the edges by the dominant, core culture they live in because of their language, religion or customs, and especially by wealth.
- Exclusion is the extreme form of marginalisation, when people’s access to services and opportunities is restricted.
- Social polarisation is the process of segregation within a society that emerges from income inequality and economic restructuring; it results in the clustering
of high-income, elite professionals, or conversely of low-income social groups dominated by low-skilled services jobs. - Rural and urban areas help to shape each other’s places and are interdependent:
9
Q
Marginalisation, exclusion and social polarisation
p2
Rural and urban areas help to shape each other’s places and are interdependent:
A
- People in rural areas depend on towns and cities for many key services, including specialised healthcare, higher education and leisure. Commuter villages and towns may also depend on urban areas for employment.
- Urban people rely on the countryside for food and non-food products, and value the landscape and environment found in the rural areas for leisure and recreation.
- Urban dwellers may have more power than rural dwellers in a democracy like the UK, which can prove to be an issue, as with the long-running debate on fox hunting and, more recently, fracking.
- Urban dwellers may say they have a strong association and engagement with the countryside, through visits and holidays, but may not know it very well in reality.
10
Q
Causes contrasting groups in communities that have different views about the priorities and strategies for regeneration:
A
lack of political engagement and representation
ethnic tensions
inequality
lack of economic opportunity
11
Q
. Lack of Political Engagement and Representation:
A
- Limited Inclusivity:
Cause: Communities with a lack of political engagement may feel excluded from decision-making processes related to regeneration.
Consequence: Limited representation can lead to a disconnect between the needs and priorities of the community and the regeneration strategies implemented. - Communication Gap:
Cause: Insufficient communication channels between residents and policymakers can result in a lack of awareness and understanding regarding regeneration initiatives.
Consequence: This communication gap may foster mistrust and a perception that community input is not valued. - Power Imbalance:
Cause: Unequal power dynamics within the political landscape may lead to certain groups having more influence over regeneration decisions.
Consequence: Marginalised groups may feel their needs are overlooked, leading to contrasting views on the priorities and strategies for regeneration.
12
Q
Ethnic Tensions:
A
- Historical Grievances:
Cause: Ethnic tensions may arise from historical grievances or conflicts that continue to shape community dynamics.
Consequence: These tensions can influence how different ethnic groups perceive and engage with regeneration initiatives, leading to contrasting views. - Cultural Identity:
Cause: Regeneration projects may impact cultural landscapes, and different ethnic groups may have varying perspectives on how their cultural identity is considered.
Consequence: Clashes over cultural preservation or changes can create contrasting views on regeneration priorities. - Unequal Resource Allocation:
Cause: If regeneration resources are perceived to be unequally distributed among different ethnic communities, tensions may arise.
Consequence: This can lead to contrasting views on the fairness and effectiveness of regeneration efforts.
13
Q
. Inequality:
A
- Economic Disparities:
Cause: Widening economic gaps can result in differing priorities for regeneration.
Consequence: Disparities in wealth and resources may lead to conflicting views on where regeneration investments should be directed. - Access to Services:
Cause: Inequalities in access to essential services can shape contrasting perspectives.
Consequence: Communities facing service deprivation may prioritize improvements in basic amenities, while others may focus on different aspects of regeneration. - Employment Opportunities:
Cause: Unequal access to employment opportunities can influence views on the importance of job creation in regeneration.
Consequence: Communities with high unemployment rates may prioritize economic development, while others may have different concerns.
14
Q
. Lack of Economic Opportunity:
A
- Job Insecurity:
Cause: Areas with a lack of economic opportunity may prioritize job creation as a regeneration priority.
Consequence: Communities experiencing job insecurity may emphasize the importance of economic development over other aspects of regeneration. - Youth Migration:
Cause: Lack of economic opportunities may result in the migration of young people in search of better prospects.
Consequence: The remaining population may have different priorities than those who have left, leading to contrasting views on regeneration. - Impact on Local Businesses:
Cause: A lack of economic opportunities can adversely affect local businesses.
Consequence: Communities with struggling local economies may prioritize initiatives that support small businesses, while others may focus on different regeneration aspects.
15
Q
The following three contrasting examples show the types and level of conflicts that arise from many regeneration strategies.
A
Studentification:
Barton Farm/King’s Barton urban fringe regeneration:
The Northern Powerhouse:
16
Q
Studentification:
A
A process which affects many larger urban places, such as Leeds, Nottingham and Southampton, is that of studentification.
Concentrations of transient, exuberant youthful groups, who may have little regard for their surrounding longer-term residents, have forced some local authorities to try and restrict the number of houses of multiple occupation.
17
Q
Barton Farm/King’s Barton urban fringe regeneration:
A
- In 2014, the initial preparations for a new 93-hectare greenfield mixed development scheme began on Winchester’s northern fringe.
- By 2025 there will be 2000 homes, 800 of which are designated social housing, a new academy primary school, a district shopping centre, light industrial units, a nursery, a district energy centre, nursing home, park and ride, and increased public open space.
- The change of use from farmland to, effectively, a suburb of the city, was contested for fifteen years, especially by pressure group ‘Save Barton Farm’.
- Winchester City Council’s decision not to approve the development was overturned at appeal by the Secretary for State in 2012.
- Winchester was polarised during the debate.
- More affluent people tended to support the anti-development protests.
- Singletons and low-paid professionals, including teachers and nurses unable to afford inflated house prices, and those on council waiting lists, supported the project.
18
Q
The Northern Powerhouse:
A
- The ‘Northern Powerhouse’ was a concept announced by Chancellor George Osborne in 2014 to empower cities in the North of England to work collectively to become a unified economic force to rival that of London and the South East.
- The distinct local ‘identities’, built up over decades of industrial growth and decline, are likely to hinder plans, however.
- These separate identities are demonstrated by the fierce rivalries between football clubs and their supporters in Manchester and Liverpool.
- The choice of Greater Manchester, the biggest centre in the region, as the main hub is contested by Liverpool’s City Council.
- One reason for these separate identities is poor inter-regional transport links.
- When built, High Speed 2 (HS2) will link the powerhouse to London.
- This high-speed rail link has also generated huge debate in all the locations it will run through.
19
Q
In conclusion:
A
- inherent local characteristics and internal and external drivers of change result in economic and social inequalities, which are targeted by regeneration programmes.
- Inequalities in turn lead to differing perceptions of and attachments to places and levels of engagement.
- Some local areas will have places that are more in need of regeneration than others.
20
Q
CASE STUDY- CONFLICTS ABOUT REGENERATION - 2011 RACE RIOTS:
Causes:
A
Petty criminality
Urban deprivation
Alienated and disaffected youth population
High youth unemployment
Government cutbacks to Education Maintenance Allowance
Increased university fees
Warm summer
Anger about bonuses paid to bankers
Police stop - and - search tactics
Poor relationships between police and black community
21
Q
Qualitative Data:
A
These are people’s opinions as well as their lived experience.
This type of data understands the views of the people living in an area and the priorities for regeneration.
22
Q
Quantitative Data:
A
This is specific factual information gathered by the government.
This includes the national census which is gathered every 10 years, or the Index of Multiple Deprivation.
This type of data allows for direct comparisons to be made.
23
Q
Media Representation:
A
This can be in the form of books, films, music or art.
It allows people to have an opinion of a place without visiting it.
The places that have negative connotations may then be selected for regeneration.
24
Q
How different representations of your chosen local place could influence the perceived need for regeneration:
A
If an area has a high perceived need for regeneration, then it is more likely that regeneration will occur in this area.
This is because people’s perceptions of it depend on whether regeneration occurs or not.
Places which have negative perceptions are more likely to have regeneration.
25
national government - Infrastructure investment p1
- The government plays a key role in regeneration by managing the country's economic, social and physical environments through various political decisions.
- Investment in infrastructure and addressing issues of accessibility are seen as major factors in maintaining economic growth.
- Infrastructure projects have two main characteristics: high cost and longevity, hence needing government funding.
- Since the 1980s there has been increasing privatisation and partnerships between government and private financiers.
26
national government - Infrastructure investment p2
- The private sector is used to design, build, finance and/or maintain public sector assets in return for long-term payments or profit from the initial revenue generated.
- The Infrastructure and Projects Authority, part of the Treasury, was formed in January 2016 by the merger of several departments.
- It oversees long-term infrastructure priorities and secures private sector investment, including Crossrail and broadband.
- There are many other departments involved in regeneration which, since devolution in 1999, differ slightly between Scotland, Wales, Northern Ireland and England.
27
national government - Infrastructure investment EXAMPLES:
The list below shows an overview of the departments involved in both 'hard' regeneration (capital investment, physical buildings, infrastructure) and 'soft' regeneration (planning, skills and education).
- The Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) aims to create 'great places to live and work' and empower local people to shape their own places.
It includes the Planning Inspectorate and Homes and Communities Agency, which oversees Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and Local Enterprise Partnerships (LEPs).
- The Department for Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS) markets the UK's image abroad, and protects and promotes cultural and artistic heritage and innovation.
It includes Sport England and the National Lottery.
- The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) oversees the Environment Agency, Natural England and the National Park Authorities.
It advocates environmental stability as part of sustained economic growth.
- UK Trade and Investment supports UK businesses and encourages inward investment.
It oversees the Regeneration and Investment Organisation (RIO), which is involved in large-scale flagship regeneration projects.
By 2015, RIO had 40 large projects of over £ 100 million needing private investment, such as Liverpool Waters and Sutton Drug Discovery Complex.
28
When investigating the types of regeneration in your local area you will encounter some of these major government players as well as county and local councils, and other important players. These may be:
- mayors of metropolitan regions
- non-governmental organisations, such as pressure groups, environmental groups, charities and businesses
- local individuals.
There may be differences of opinions between people that need to be resolved by the government or the legal system, as exemplified in the long-running debate over airport and train infrastructure improvements to retain and generate economic growth.
29
Airport development:
- In 2015, after twelve years of debate, the Airports Commission gave a clear and unanimous recommendation for an expansion plan at Heathrow, including a third runway
- The cost, an estimated £18.6 billion, will be privately funded but some of the support infrastructure will be publically funded.
The recommendation has polarised views:
- Anti-expansion: London's mayor; many MPs; local and national protest groups such as Plane Stupid, Greenpeace and the Campaign to Protect Rural England (CPRE); and some high-profile celebrities such as Alistair McGowan.
- Pro-expansion: business leaders, British Chambers of Commerce and Richard Branson.
Heathrow airport argues that the hub operates near full capacity and, since the South East is the main earner of GVA in the UK, expansion is essential to keep up with demand.
It could generate £100 billion of benefits nationally, protect the current 114,000 local jobs and create over 70,000 new ones.
30
High Speed Two (HS2):
- The Department for Transport's company HS2 Ltd is responsible for developing and promoting the UK's new high-speed rail network, High Speed Two, from London to Birmingham, Manchester and Leeds.
- It is key to the large-scale Northern Powerhouse regeneration scheme.
- The two phases, with end dates of 2026 and 2033, show the long period of time needed for such large infrastructure projects.
- There has been great controversy about the costs, exact route of the line and its effect on those living nearby
31
Three aspects of the role of government planning
Planning laws:
Planning for fracking:
Planning for housing needs:
32
Planning laws:
p1
- Planning is about deciding how land is used - It helps create places that people want to live, work, relax in and invest into.
- It shapes places and includes 'place marketing' to either improve an existing place or completely change its image.
- Central and local governments have tightly controlled all aspects of development since 1948 through a plan-led system.
- Since the players involved may differ in views on its use, planning also includes 'mediation' to try to reconcile these differences.
- National interests may override local interests in planning decisions.
- Since 2010 the government's National Planning Policy framework has focused planning on stimulating economic growth.
- Planners may regulate markets by using a tool called 'planning gain' whereby they allow development if there is a benefit to the local community, for example, some social housing built as part of a new housing scheme or a new road system or community centre paid for by the developer.
33
Planning laws:
p2
- Slow decision-making on the future of a place may result in planning blight: investors are unwilling to commit until a decision is made, house prices may fall and trap residents into not being able to move, landlords may not maintain properties and a downward spiral results.
- When a developer wants to implement a scheme, they submit a proposal to the local authority.
- This decides whether it fits with the current local plan, which itself fits into national guidelines.
- There are appeal procedures if it is rejected, and sometimes a public inquiry is held, which can be very costly and even last decades.
- The EU also has a say in planning and has made Environmental Impact Assessments compulsory for some developments.
- From 2013, where local authorities are considered to have a 'poor' planning record of decisions, developers were able to apply directly to the DCLG's Planning Inspectorate because the government sees delays as negative to economic growth.
34
Planning for fracking:
- The process of obtaining gas from shale rock by hydraulic fracturing is known as fracking.
- The government sees it as a national priority to increase secure energy supplies and economic prosperity.
- Exploration licences for oil and gas companies are given by the Department of Energy and Climate Change (DECC).
- ElAs are required, but it has caused a great uproar in many constituencies.
- There are many local and national anti-fracking pressure groups, for example Frack Off.
- From 2015 a new fast-track system was introduced to deal with licence applications.
- One of the first tests of the system was by Cuadrilla Resources, which was blocked from drilling by local authorities in Lancashire.
35
Planning for housing needs:
- The government's involvement in housing supply started from the late nineteenth/early twentieth century.
There have been many political twists and turns and changes in priorities since then:
- - Labour-led governments have fostered social housing, and vast state social housing schemes were built from 1918 to 1940.
- Old-style Regional Planning Authorities were encouraged to set building targets for local authorities in the 1990s, often controversially, because they did not deliver enough new houses.
- Conservative governments have favoured a market-led approach, with the contentious Right to Buy policy resulting in the sale of more than 2 million council homes from 1980 to 1995.
- The expectation that charitable or private housing associations would replace local authorities in building lower-cost homes has not happened.
- There is now a shortfall in supply, with long waiting lists.
- The 2011 Localism Act abolished Regional Planning Authorities.
- Post-2011 policies centre around local decisions on housing supply. This has resulted in:
36
Post-2011 policies centre around local decisions on housing supply. This has resulted in:
* Underinvestment (partly due to the economic downturn since 2008).
* Shortfall of private and rented accommodation.
* Large number of empty properties.
* Hotspots of inflated housing areas, especially in London and the South East.
* Planning restrictions hindering developers.
* Social changes, especially increases in the numbers of elderly people and single households, adding pressure on the housing market.
* Paradoxically, those on lower incomes sometimes pay proportionately more for their rented housing than wealthier home owners, so affordability is a key issue nationally.
37
Government policies on international migration and deregulation of capital markets:
Government policies have significant impacts on the potential for growth and both direct and indirect investment.
Two examples are now considered:
- The direct degree of involvement in capital markets comprised of banking and the stock exchange
- and more indirect migration policies that influence labour supplies and skills and, hence, GDP.
38
Government policy on the deregulation of capital markets:
p1
- Capital markets are based on dealing in shares, bonds and other long-term investments, so any government involvement may have significant impacts on the potential for national and local growth.
- After decades of tight restriction on banking and capital markets following the depression in the 1920s, in 1986 the Conservatives began the process of deregulating financial markets by introducing a policy known as the 'Big Bang'.
- This was to encourage more investment as London was becoming uncompetitive and losing business to other financial centres; it also coincided with the rise of electronic trading.
- Ending the Stock Exchange's monopoly and removing entry barriers encouraged European and US banks to open in London, resulting in banking, finance and business services creating almost 30 percent of the UK's GDP by 2008, double that of 1986.
- The skyscrapers of London's Canary Wharf are the visible image of this new investment and prosperity.
39
Government policy on the deregulation of capital markets:
p2
- The policy of deregulation was added to by subsequent Labour governments, but these 'light touch' regulations on banks are partly blamed for the 2008 financial crisis, subsequent low economic growth and austerity measures.
- In the UK, the government has increased monitoring and regulation through the Financial Services Act of 2012.
- This strengthened the role of the Bank of England, critical in maintaining the stability of financial institutions and markets through its use of the lender-of-last-resort function and regulatory committees.
- It also set up the Financial Conduct Authority.
40
Government policy on international migration:
- The economic argument for immigration is increased national GDP.
- Apart from extra taxes and production generally, well-qualified as well as lower-skilled people can fill skills shortages.
- Immigrants tend to be mainly younger adults and their families, making places with an ageing population structure more sustainable.
- Historically there have been many waves of immigration into Britain, but the pace has accelerated markedly due to the ten countries that joined the EU in 2004.
- Even relatively small numbers of illegal immigrants, especially when clustered into certain places, can cause media hysteria and influence party politics and policies
41
Since the mid-twentieth century there have been significant changes in government immigration policies, which are simplified below:
1950-77: restrictive policy to limit the new and unexpected rise of immigration from New Commonwealth countries.
1997-2010: pro-immigration policies by the Labour administrations.
2010 onwards: restrictive policy by the coalition then Conservative administrations, described by Prime Minister David Cameron as 'good immigration, not mass immigration', meaning only the most 'beneficial' are allowed to stay in the UK.
42
Migrations level on uk:
p1
- The aim of reducing overall net migration levels, from hundreds of thousands to tens of thousands by 2015, has proved difficult to achieve.
- Policies centre on minimising opportunities for abuse and being more selective about the criteria for entry.
- Overseas students have been targeted by scrapping post-study work visas.
- Incoming extended families and 'benefit tourism' have also been reduced.
- From 2015 there were proposals for restricting work visas to specific skills shortages and specialisms, and a higher salary threshold before people are allowed residence.
- The 2016 referendum on the UK's position in the EU may influence such trends.
43
Migrations level on uk:
p2
- By 2015 there were 117,161 refugees, pending asylum cases and stateless people in the UK - notably from Eritrea, Pakistan, Iran and Syria - just 0.24 per cent of the total population.
- The majority of asylum seekers do not have the right to work in the UK so must rely on state support with housing and a weekly cash payment of approximately £36 per person.
- They cannot choose their location; hard-to-let properties, which council tenants reject, are often used.
- These are often substandard homes in 'white' estates found in Liverpool, Middlesbrough and Glasgow, with resulting social issues.
