Research & Program Evaluation

Question 1

In program evaluation, formative evaluation is BEST described as:

• A. An assessment during program development to improve effectiveness
• B. An assessment at the end of a program to judge overall success
• C. A statistical comparison between two interventions

Answer 1

A. An assessment during program development to improve effectiveness

Formative evaluation focuses on improving a program while it is being developed.

Question 2

A researcher asks participants to rank their satisfaction with a counseling program from “1 = least satisfied” to “5 = most satisfied.” This is an example of:

• A. Nominal data
• B. Ordinal data
• C. Ratio data

Answer 2

B. Ordinal data

Ordinal data involves order or ranking but not equal intervals between ranks.

Question 3

A study ensures equal representation of genders to strengthen:

• A. Statistical regression
• B. Internal control via randomization
• C. External validity through sample diversity

Answer 3

C. External validity through sample diversity

Representative sampling enhances generalizability.

Question 4

A counselor tests whether a new form measures readiness for change. The focus is:

• A. Ecological generalizability
• B. Reliability over time
• C. Construct validity

Answer 4

C. Construct validity

Construct validity ensures a tool measures its intended concept.

Question 5

A school counselor develops a survey where scores can range from 0 to 100. The scores represent:

• A. Ordinal data
• B. Interval data
• C. Ratio data

Answer 5

B. Interval data

Interval data have equal intervals between values but no true zero.

Question 6

If outcome gains cannot confidently be linked to the program, the study lacks:

• A. External credibility
• B. Ecological realism
• C. Internal validity

Answer 6

C. Internal validity and causal inference

Without control of confounding variables, causal inference fails.

Question 7

When data show a positive correlation between study time and test score, the counselor concludes:

• A. The variables relate but causation is unproven
• B. Studying directly causes success
• C. No meaningful relationship exists

Answer 7

A. The variables relate but causation is unproven

Correlation quantifies association, not cause.

Question 8

The CPCE was developed to:

• A. Measure counselor personality traits
• B. Replace the NCE as a licensure exam
• C. Assess core counseling knowledge for graduate students

Answer 8

C. Assess core counseling knowledge for graduate students

The Counselor Preparation Comprehensive Examination (CPCE) evaluates mastery of CACREP’s eight core areas within academic programs.

Question 9

A counselor is evaluating the effectiveness of a new stress-reduction program. She assigns students to the intervention group alphabetically by last name. What is the primary limitation of this design?

• A. Selection bias
• B. Instrumentation error
• C. History effect

Answer 9

A. Selection bias

Assigning participants alphabetically can introduce selection bias, affecting the study’s validity.

Question 10

Random sampling primarily strengthens:

• A. External validity
• B. Split-half reliability
• C. Internal consistency

Answer 10

A. External validity

Representative samples boost generalizability.

Question 11

A counselor reviewing test results notes that a client’s confidence interval for an IQ score ranges from 95–105. This suggests:

• A. The client’s true score likely falls within this range
• B. The client’s exact IQ is 100
• C. The test lacks construct validity

Answer 11

A. The client’s true score likely falls within this range

A confidence interval provides a range in which the true score is likely to fall.

Question 12

A program evaluation study tracks dropout rates, attendance, and client satisfaction while the program is ongoing. This is an example of:

• A. Formative evaluation
• B. Summative evaluation
• C. Experimental validity

Answer 12

A. Formative evaluation

Formative evaluation focuses on monitoring and improving a program during its implementation.

Question 13

A counselor administers a test that appears to measure self-confidence simply because it looks like it should. This reflects:

• A. Face validity
• B. Content validity
• C. Criterion validity

Answer 13

A. Face validity

Face validity refers to the extent to which a test appears to measure what it is supposed to measure.

Question 14

Comparing male and female responses on a stress scale involves:

• A. Descriptive reporting only
• B. Qualitative analysis
• C. Inferential statistics testing group differences

Answer 14

C. Inferential statistics testing group differences

Inferential tests reveal statistically significant group variance.

Question 15

A SMART goal is written as follows: “Client will identify three previous situations in which they successfully managed anxiety and describe these in session over the next three weeks.” Which of the following best reflects this treatment approach?

• A. Focusing on past trauma to create insight
• B. Exploring maladaptive cognitive schemas
• C. Highlighting client strengths and past exceptions

Answer 15

C. Highlighting client strengths and past exceptions

SFBT focuses on exceptions, strengths, and what is already working.

Question 16

If a test accurately measures the construct it claims to measure, it demonstrates strong:

• A. Construct validity
• B. Test–retest reliability
• C. Face value

Answer 16

A. Construct validity

Construct validity reflects theoretical soundness of measurement.

Question 17

A counselor calculates a client’s IQ score of 130. Which percentile rank does this MOST closely approximate?

• A. 84th
• B. 98th
• C. 50th

Answer 17

B. 98th

An IQ score of 130 typically falls within the 98th percentile, indicating superior performance.

Question 18

A counselor who combines numerical test data with interview themes is using:

• A. Archival analysis
• B. Mixed-methods research
• C. Quantitative design only

Answer 18

B. Mixed-methods research

Mixed-methods integrates quantitative and qualitative data for fuller understanding.

Question 19

A counselor selects cognitive-behavioral therapy because research supports it, she is trained in it, and the client prefers it. This demonstrates:

• A. Reliability
• B. Dependent variable selection
• C. Evidence-based practice

Answer 19

C. Evidence-based practice

Evidence-based practice integrates research findings, counselor competence, and client preferences.

Question 20

A researcher administers a test and later changes the scoring method midway through the study. This threatens:

• A. Instrumentation validity
• B. Random assignment
• C. Statistical power

Answer 20

A. Instrumentation validity

Altering instruments or scoring procedures during data collection introduces inconsistency that weakens internal validity.

Question 21

A researcher randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups. This procedure strengthens:

• A. Internal validity
• B. Face validity
• C. External validity

Answer 21

A. Internal validity

Random assignment controls confounding variables, enhancing confidence that changes result from the treatment.

Question 22

A counselor using mixed methods integrates numerical outcomes with client narratives. The intent is to:

• A. Validate hypotheses post hoc
• B. Enrich data interpretation through triangulation
• C. Replace statistics with qualitative themes

Answer 22

B. Enrich data interpretation through triangulation

Mixed methods combine depth and breadth, reinforcing validity through cross-confirmation.

Question 23

A counselor evaluates whether training outcomes can be applied to other agencies. The focus is on:

• A. Internal control of variables
• B. Statistical power
• C. External validity and generalizability

Answer 23

C. External validity and generalizability

Generalization ensures findings extend beyond the original sample.

Question 24

When citing a chapter in an edited book, APA format includes:

• A. Editor only and publication city
• B. Chapter author, year, chapter title, editor(s), book title, and page range
• C. Book title alone

Answer 24

B. Chapter author, year, chapter title, editor(s), book title, and page range

Edited volumes require both chapter and book contributors to properly credit intellectual sources.

Question 25

A counselor repeats a measure over time with the same clients to track change. This tests: * A. Cross-sectional comparison * B. Face validity * C. Test–retest reliability

Answer 25

C. Test–retest reliability ## Footnote Consistency across occasions signals dependable measurement.

Question 26

A researcher randomly assigns participants to treatment and control groups. **This design strengthens which aspect of the study?** * A. External validity * B. Internal validity * C. Construct validity

Answer 26

B. Internal validity ## Footnote Random assignment helps ensure that differences between groups are due to the treatment, enhancing internal validity.

Question 27

A counselor gathering weekly outcome data to refine interventions is practicing: * A. Continuous quality improvement through formative assessment * B. Randomized experimental design * C. Summative evaluation after program completion

Answer 27

A. Continuous quality improvement through formative assessment ## Footnote Formative assessment allows mid-course adjustment for effectiveness.

Question 28

A counselor discovers that participants dropped out before post-testing. This primarily threatens: * A. Internal validity due to attrition * B. External validity due to sampling error * C. Face validity of the instrument

Answer 28

A. Internal validity due to attrition ## Footnote Attrition skews comparisons between groups, undermining causal conclusions.

Question 29

Collecting outcome data to see if training improved skills assesses: * A. Sampling error * B. Program effectiveness * C. Internal reliability

Answer 29

B. Program effectiveness ## Footnote Outcomes test whether the intervention achieved its aims.

Question 30

Two raters who consistently agree demonstrate high: * A. Interrater reliability * B. Test–retest reliability * C. Predictive validity

Answer 30

A. Interrater reliability ## Footnote Agreement across observers = reliable scoring.

Question 31

When citing a webpage that changes frequently, APA recommends: * A. Omitting the retrieval date entirely * B. Including the retrieval date before the URL * C. Placing the URL first in the reference list

Answer 31

B. Including the retrieval date before the URL ## Footnote For content likely to evolve (e.g., wikis, live webpages), APA 7th mandates a retrieval date.

Question 32

A counselor finds that clients tend to score higher on a personality test the second time they take it due to familiarity. **This illustrates:** * A. Maturation effect * B. Testing effect * C. History effect

Answer 32

B. Testing effect ## Footnote The testing effect occurs when familiarity with a test improves performance on subsequent administrations.

Question 33

Which is a key advantage of longitudinal research compared to cross-sectional? * A. Lower cost * B. Less time-intensive * C. Richer understanding of change over time

Answer 33

C. Richer understanding of change over time ## Footnote Longitudinal studies capture the unfolding of variables, allowing researchers to examine patterns and causes of change.

Question 34

Which reliability measure would best assess **consistency among different raters?** * A. Test-retest reliability * B. Inter-rater reliability * C. Split-half reliability

Answer 34

B. Inter-rater reliability ## Footnote Inter-rater reliability measures the level of agreement between different raters.

Question 35

An APA reference for a webpage should include: * A. Author or organization, date, title, site name, and URL * B. DOI only * C. City, publisher, and retrieval date

Answer 35

A. Author or organization, date, title, site name, and URL ## Footnote APA web citations list author, date, title, source, and URL; retrieval dates are used only when content changes frequently.

Question 36

Combining qualitative interviews with quantitative scales to explain outcomes best represents: * A. Mixed-methods design * B. Experimental control * C. Case-study exploration

Answer 36

A. Mixed-methods design ## Footnote Mixed-methods synthesize narrative depth with statistical precision for holistic understanding.

Question 37

Comparing stress-scale scores of male and female groups primarily employs: * A. Inferential statistics testing group variance * B. Descriptive summaries * C. Case study comparison

Answer 37

A. Inferential statistics testing group variance ## Footnote Inferential analyses determine statistical significance between groups.

Question 38

In APA 7th edition, a direct quotation from a printed book must include: * A. Author, year, and page number * B. Book title and publication city * C. Author and chapter title only

Answer 38

A. Author, year, and page number ## Footnote Direct quotes require pinpoint citation — author, publication year, and page number — to maintain academic integrity.

Question 39

A counselor collecting client feedback mid-program to improve service quality is conducting: * A. Formative evaluation * B. Summative evaluation * C. Retrospective validity check

Answer 39

A. Formative evaluation ## Footnote Formative evaluations guide real-time adjustments.

Question 40

As study time increases, test anxiety decreases. This shows: * A. Positive correlation * B. Negative correlation * C. Spurious link

Answer 40

B. Negative correlation ## Footnote One variable rises as the other falls, indicating negative correlation.

Question 41

Merging interviews with numerical ratings to understand satisfaction uses: * A. Cross-sectional analysis * B. Pure experimental design * C. Mixed-methods design

Answer 41

C. Mixed-methods design ## Footnote Combining qualitative + quantitative widens the lens and the leverage

Question 42

High correlation between two test halves supports: * A. Predictive validity * B. Split-half reliability * C. Factor stability

Answer 42

B. Split-half reliability ## Footnote Agreement between halves evidences internal consistency.

Question 43

A counselor wants to know if a test truly measures what it claims to measure. This reflects concern with: * A. Reliability * B. Standardization * C. Validity

Answer 43

C. Validity ## Footnote Validity addresses the accuracy and meaning of measurement—whether the tool captures the intended construct.

Question 44

A student lists every reference used, but some are not cited in text. This violates which APA principle? * A. Correspondence between in-text and reference list citations * B. Redundancy in source listing * C. Formatting only

Answer 44

A. Correspondence between in-text and reference list citations ## Footnote APA integrity requires perfect one-to-one correspondence between in-text citations and reference entries.

Question 45

In a normal curve, approximately what percentage of scores fall within **one standard deviation of the mean?** * A. 34% * B. 68% * C. 95%

Answer 45

B. 68% ## Footnote In a normal distribution, about 68% of data falls within one standard deviation of the mean.

Question 46

A counselor tracks average change across four weekly sessions to assess growth. This design is: * A. Cross-sectional * B. Between-subjects correlational * C. Longitudinal within-subjects

Answer 46

C. Longitudinal within-subjects ## Footnote Repeated measures of the same individuals form a longitudinal pattern.

Question 47

Widely varying test results across administrations question: * A. Predictive validity * B. Sampling generalizability * C. Reliability

Answer 47

C. Reliability ## Footnote Consistency defines reliability; instability weakens it.

Question 48

For a journal article with a DOI, the reference should end with: * A. Retrieval date * B. https://doi.org/ followed by the DOI number * C. Database name

Answer 48

B. https://doi.org/ followed by the DOI number ## Footnote APA references use the DOI URL to identify journal articles permanently.

Question 49

A counselor conducts a longitudinal study tracking substance use across 15 years. **Which threat to validity is most concerning?** * A. Testing effect * B. Attrition * C. Instrumentation

Answer 49

B. Attrition ## Footnote Attrition refers to participants dropping out of a study over time, which can threaten the study's validity.

Question 50

A researcher is testing the effectiveness of a new therapy technique. The **null hypothesis (H₀)** would state: * A. The therapy has no effect on outcomes * B. The therapy improves outcomes * C. The therapy decreases outcomes

Answer 50

A. The therapy has no effect on outcomes ## Footnote The null hypothesis typically states that there is no effect or difference.

Question 51

In experimental design, the dependent variable is defined as: * A. The outcome influenced by the independent variable * B. The factor manipulated by the researcher * C. The randomization process itself

Answer 51

A. The outcome influenced by the independent variable ## Footnote The dependent variable reflects the measured effect resulting from manipulation of the independent variable.

Question 52

A counselor concludes a new substance use program has no effect, when in fact it reduces relapse rates. **This is an example of:** * A. Type I error * B. Type II error * C. Attrition

Answer 52

B. Type II error ## Footnote A Type II error occurs when a false null hypothesis is not rejected.

Question 53

A study that measures counselor performance and client satisfaction during implementation focuses on: * A. Process evaluation * B. Predictive validity * C. Outcome evaluation

Answer 53

A. Process evaluation ## Footnote Process evaluation examines how services are delivered and experienced.

Question 54

A counselor finds that an intervention benefits one population but not another. This difference raises questions about: * A. Generalizability * B. Response bias * C. Reliability

Answer 54

A. Generalizability ## Footnote Generalizability assesses applicability of findings across groups.

Question 55

When citing a webpage with a corporate author, APA requires listing: * A. The organization name as author * B. The webmaster’s name * C. The site’s URL only

Answer 55

A. The organization name as author ## Footnote In organizational authorship, the entity itself assumes author position to preserve attribution integrity.

Question 56

APA 7th edition recommends what line spacing throughout the manuscript? * A. Double-spacing throughout, including references * B. Single-spacing for body, double for references * C. Double for text, single for quotations

Answer 56

A. Double-spacing throughout, including references ## Footnote Uniform double-spacing ensures readability and scholarly consistency.

Question 57

Research explaining how variables interact over time reflects: * A. Static experimental design * B. Longitudinal research focused on developmental trajectories * C. Descriptive cross-sectional study

Answer 57

B. Longitudinal research focused on developmental trajectories ## Footnote Longitudinal methods capture change processes across time.

Question 58

When participants are not randomly assigned, the study risks reduced: * A. External validity * B. Ecological validity * C. Internal validity

Answer 58

C. Internal validity ## Footnote Lack of randomization weakens control over confounding factors.

Question 59

If the correlation between two variables is zero, it means: * A. The variables move together perfectly * B. No linear relationship exists * C. A strong negative relationship exists

Answer 59

B. No linear relationship exists ## Footnote A correlation of 0 indicates independence with no predictive link.

Question 60

In a correlational study, a researcher finds **r = -0.85** between self-esteem and social anxiety. How should this be interpreted? * A. High self-esteem is strongly associated with low social anxiety * B. The relationship is weak and insignificant * C. Low self-esteem causes social anxiety

Answer 60

A. High self-esteem is strongly associated with low social anxiety ## Footnote A strong negative correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other decreases.

Question 61

Comparing pre- and post-intervention outcomes measures: * A. Program effectiveness * B. Implementation process * C. Predictive reliability

Answer 61

A. Program effectiveness ## Footnote Pre/post evaluation assesses impact and success.

Question 62

A counselor concludes a new intervention reduces depression when, in truth, it does not. **This represents:** * A. Type I error * B. Type II error * C. Internal validity threat

Answer 62

A. Type I error ## Footnote A Type I error occurs when a true null hypothesis is incorrectly rejected.

Question 63

A test that forecasts future job performance shows strong: * A. Predictive validity * B. Construct validity * C. Concurrent reliability

Answer 63

A. Predictive validity ## Footnote “Predictive” = future outcomes matched by present scores.

Question 64

A test consistently yields the same scores across time, but does not measure what it intends to measure. **This test has:** * A. High reliability, low validity * B. Low reliability, high validity * C. High reliability and high validity

Answer 64

A. High reliability, low validity ## Footnote Reliability refers to consistency, while validity refers to accuracy.

Question 65

What distinguishes evidence-based practice from trend-based practice? * A. Focus solely on practitioner preference * B. Use of qualitative methods exclusively * C. Reliance on research evidence, professional expertise, and client values

Answer 65

C. Reliance on research evidence, professional expertise, and client values ## Footnote Evidence-based practice balances empirical data, counselor judgment, and client-centered care.

Question 66

A study measures the same construct with two different tools and finds a strong positive correlation. This supports: * A. Convergent validity * B. Divergent validity * C. Face validity

Answer 66

A. Convergent validity ## Footnote Convergent evidence confirms related measures assess the same trait.

Question 67

A researcher uses random sampling to select participants from an entire population. This technique primarily enhances: * A. External validity * B. Internal consistency * C. Experimental control

Answer 67

A. External validity ## Footnote Random sampling ensures representativeness, improving generalization of results.

Question 68

A researcher concludes an intervention is effective when **p = .20.** Which conclusion is MOST accurate? * A. The null hypothesis should be rejected * B. The results are not statistically significant * C. A Type I error has occurred

Answer 68

B. The results are not statistically significant ## Footnote A p-value of .20 indicates that the results are not statistically significant, as it is above the common threshold of .05.

Question 69

A counselor wants to ensure that a client-satisfaction survey produces consistent results each semester. The counselor is examining: * A. Reliability * B. Criterion bias * C. External validity

Answer 69

A. Reliability ## Footnote Reliability ensures measurement stability over time.

Question 70

Combining narrative feedback with numeric ratings to evaluate programs demonstrates: * A. Mixed-methods evaluation for comprehensive insight * B. Quantitative reductionism * C. Anecdotal bias

Answer 70

A. Mixed-methods evaluation for comprehensive insight ## Footnote Integrating qualitative and quantitative data provides holistic evaluation.

Question 71

A counselor studies whether a self-esteem inventory can predict future school success. The focus is on: * A. Face validity * B. Inter-rater reliability * C. Predictive validity

Answer 71

C. Predictive validity ## Footnote Predictive validity evaluates how well a measure forecasts future outcomes.

Question 72

Which is the main purpose of a **summative evaluation?** * A. To monitor progress and make adjustments during implementation * B. To assess long-term impact and outcomes after program completion * C. To ensure randomization in experimental studies

Answer 72

B. To assess long-term impact and outcomes after program completion ## Footnote Summative evaluation assesses the overall success of a program after its completion.

Question 73

A researcher notices that as self-efficacy scores rise, academic achievement also rises. **This relationship is:** * A. Positive correlation * B. Negative correlation * C. No correlation

Answer 73

A. Positive correlation ## Footnote A positive correlation indicates that as one variable increases, the other also increases.

Question 74

A researcher reports a correlation of **r = 0.00** between two variables. What does this indicate? * A. No linear relationship between the variables * B. A weak but positive relationship * C. A negative curvilinear relationship

Answer 74

A. No linear relationship between the variables ## Footnote A correlation of 0 indicates no linear relationship.

Question 75

A counselor develops a new depression scale and gives it to a sample of 500 clients. He divides the test into two halves and compares results. **This method assesses:** * A. Internal consistency * B. Predictive validity * C. Test-retest reliability

Answer 75

A. Internal consistency ## Footnote Internal consistency measures how well the items on a test measure the same construct.

Question 76

A counselor administers a standardized test to a group of clients. He notes that one client consistently scores much lower than expected due to language barriers. **This is an example of:** * A. Construct validity * B. Cultural bias * C. Internal consistency

Answer 76

B. Cultural bias ## Footnote Cultural bias occurs when a test unfairly disadvantages individuals from certain cultural backgrounds.

Question 77

Which element should not be italicized in an APA 7th edition reference for a book? * A. The edition or volume number * B. The publisher’s name * C. The title of the book

Answer 77

B. The publisher’s name ## Footnote The publisher name is not italicized; only the title and subtitle are, maintaining clarity and hierarchy.

Question 78

When multiple related studies are statistically combined to reveal overall effectiveness, the design used is: * A. Longitudinal cohort * B. Correlational case review * C. Meta-analytic synthesis

Answer 78

C. Meta-analytic synthesis ## Footnote Meta-analysis integrates outcomes across research to strengthen evidence base.

Question 79

A counselor uses two halves of a test to verify that both yield similar results. This assesses: * A. Experimental control * B. Predictive validity * C. Internal consistency reliability

Answer 79

C. Internal consistency reliability ## Footnote Internal consistency shows that all items measure the same construct with coherence.

Question 80

If a test measures anxiety but overlaps heavily with depression, the primary concern is: * A. Internal reliability * B. Discriminant validity * C. Test–retest correlation

Answer 80

B. Discriminant validity ## Footnote Poor discrimination blurs construct boundaries, weakening interpretive power.

Question 81

Assessing whether a new instrument truly measures motivation addresses: * A. Construct validity * B. Temporal reliability * C. Sampling precision

Answer 81

A. Construct validity ## Footnote Construct validity tests alignment between theory and measurement.

Question 82

A researcher reports findings that can be applied across settings and populations, demonstrating strong: * A. External validity * B. Internal validity * C. Experimental control

Answer 82

A. External validity ## Footnote External validity refers to generalizability beyond the study sample.

Question 83

A clinician modifies an empirically supported treatment to align with a client’s cultural beliefs. This is an example of: * A. Reliability testing * B. Evidence-based adaptation * C. Cross-sectional method

Answer 83

B. Evidence-based adaptation ## Footnote Evidence-based adaptation maintains the method’s integrity while enhancing cultural relevance and fit.

Question 84

When administering the Strong Interest Inventory, a counselor explains that the test compares the client’s interests to those of satisfied workers. **This reflects which type of validity?** * A. Construct * B. Criterion-related * C. Face

Answer 84

B. Criterion-related ## Footnote Criterion-related validity involves comparing test results to an external criterion.

Question 85

Internal validity refers to: * A. The degree to which changes are due to manipulation of variables * B. The extent results apply elsewhere * C. Measurement consistency

Answer 85

A. The degree to which changes are due to manipulation of variables ## Footnote Internal validity ensures causal integrity within research.

Question 86

A measure that correlates strongly with other established tools measuring the same concept **demonstrates:** * A. Convergent validity * B. Divergent validity * C. Content validity

Answer 86

A. Convergent validity ## Footnote Convergent validity is demonstrated when a measure correlates well with other measures of the same construct.

Question 87

A counselor combines focus-group themes with outcome statistics. This demonstrates: * A. Descriptive error reduction * B. Mixed-methods integration * C. Randomized control logic

Answer 87

B. Mixed-methods integration ## Footnote Triangulating qualitative and quantitative data broadens truth claims.

Question 88

When paraphrasing in APA, a student should: * A. Include only the author’s last name * B. Restate the idea in their own words and cite the author and year * C. Copy key phrases without quotation marks

Answer 88

B. Restate the idea in their own words and cite the author and year ## Footnote Paraphrasing requires conceptual rewording and parenthetical citation to credit intellectual origin.

Question 89

When sample size is too small, the primary statistical risk is: * A. Confounding variables * B. Increased alpha error * C. Low power and Type II error

Answer 89

C. Low power and Type II error ## Footnote Insufficient participants reduce ability to detect real effects.

Question 90

A counselor reports results of a small pilot study as “definitive proof.” This claim threatens: * A. Reliability and test–retest stability * B. External validity and generalizability * C. Ecological validity across contexts

Answer 90

B. External validity and generalizability ## Footnote Limited sample size weakens generalizability; overstatement of findings violates research ethics.

Question 91

A study reports **p < .05.** Which is the most accurate interpretation? * A. There is less than a 5% chance the results are due to random variation * B. The intervention is guaranteed to be effective * C. Type II error has been avoided

Answer 91

A. There is less than a 5% chance the results are due to random variation ## Footnote A p-value less than .05 indicates statistical significance, suggesting the results are unlikely due to chance.

Question 92

A test designed to predict future academic performance is **best evaluated by:** * A. Content validity * B. Predictive validity * C. Concurrent validity

Answer 92

B. Predictive validity ## Footnote Predictive validity assesses how well a test predicts future outcomes.

Question 93

A researcher interprets data to determine whether observed effects occurred by chance. This step addresses: * A. Sampling bias * B. Interrater reliability * C. Statistical significance

Answer 93

C. Statistical significance ## Footnote Significance testing determines whether results are meaningful beyond random variation.

Question 94

A counselor reviews literature to identify evidence-based interventions for trauma. This step represents: * A. Case study review * B. Systematic research utilization * C. Intuitive application

Answer 94

B. Systematic research utilization ## Footnote Systematic use of research integrates science into clinical practice.

Question 95

Random assignment strengthens: * A. Internal validity * B. External validity * C. Statistical power

Answer 95

A. Internal validity ## Footnote Randomization controls confounds and bias.

Question 96

When different raters observing the same behavior assign nearly identical scores, this indicates: * A. Internal validity * B. Inter-rater reliability * C. Predictive validity

Answer 96

B. Inter-rater reliability ## Footnote Agreement among observers confirms reliability in subjective ratings.

Question 97

A study finds strong correlation between self-esteem and happiness. This result indicates: * A. Relationship, not causation * B. Predictive direction * C. Experimental control

Answer 97

A. Relationship, not causation ## Footnote Correlational design identifies association without implying cause.

Question 98

A client’s test score has a SEM of 4. If she scored 96, what is the **68% confidence interval?** * A. 92–100 * B. 88–104 * C. 94–98

Answer 98

A. 92–100 ## Footnote The 68% confidence interval is calculated as the score plus and minus one SEM.

Question 99

Testing whether an exam forecasts future performance assesses: * A. Construct coherence * B. Predictive validity * C. Statistical power

Answer 99

B. Predictive validity ## Footnote Predictive validity examines forward accuracy.

Question 100

In a normal curve, approximately 95% of scores fall within how many **standard deviations of the mean?** * A. 1 * B. 2 * C. 3

Answer 100

B. 2 ## Footnote In a normal distribution, about 95% of data falls within two standard deviations of the mean.

Question 101

Which is not a core component of evidence-based practice? * A. Practitioner expertise * B. Cost-effectiveness * C. Research evidence

Answer 101

B. Cost-effectiveness ## Footnote While cost influences accessibility, the EBP triad focuses on evidence, expertise, and client preferences/values.

Question 102

An online journal article with a DOI is cited in APA format. The DOI should be presented as: * A. A live hyperlink beginning with “https://doi.org/” * B. Optional if URL is provided * C. A shortened digital ID without prefix

Answer 102

A. A live hyperlink beginning with “https://doi.org/” ## Footnote APA 7th requires active DOI links, formatted as full URLs, to enhance accessibility.

Question 103

A standardized test that accurately measures future performance in graduate school is **demonstrating**: * A. Predictive validity * B. Concurrent validity * C. Content validity

Answer 103

A. Predictive validity ## Footnote Predictive validity refers to the extent to which a test predicts future performance.

Question 104

A researcher designs a study to test whether a new intervention reduces test anxiety. Which **null hypothesis (H₀)** is most appropriate? * A. The intervention reduces test anxiety * B. The intervention has no effect on test anxiety * C. The intervention increases test anxiety

Answer 104

B. The intervention has no effect on test anxiety ## Footnote The null hypothesis typically states that there is no effect or difference.

Question 105

A study examines the effect of group therapy on reducing social anxiety. **The dependent variable is:** * A. Participation in group therapy * B. Level of social anxiety * C. Number of group sessions

Answer 105

B. Level of social anxiety ## Footnote The dependent variable is the outcome that is measured in a study.

Question 106

A researcher designs an experiment but does not randomly assign participants. **Which type of design is this?** * A. Quasi-experimental * B. True experimental * C. Correlational

Answer 106

A. Quasi-experimental ## Footnote Quasi-experimental designs lack random assignment, which can affect internal validity.

Question 107

Combining quantitative data from multiple studies into one analysis provides: * A. Broader statistical power through meta-analysis * B. A single descriptive case report * C. Pure qualitative synthesis

Answer 107

A. Broader statistical power through meta-analysis ## Footnote Meta-analysis aggregates findings for stronger evidence and generalization.

Question 108

When a counselor uses single-subject design to monitor client progress weekly, this method provides: * A. Predictive longitudinal outcomes * B. Large-group statistical inference * C. Ongoing individualized evaluation

Answer 108

C. Ongoing individualized evaluation ## Footnote Single-subject designs assess effectiveness for one client over time.

Question 109

Failure to properly cite an author’s ideas constitutes: * A. Creative adaptation of information * B. Unintentional omission without consequence * C. Plagiarism, a violation of academic integrity

Answer 109

C. Plagiarism, a violation of academic integrity ## Footnote Ethical scholarship demands full credit; omission of attribution is a form of intellectual dishonesty.

Question 110

External validity primarily concerns: * A. The consistency of scoring between raters * B. The relationship between variables * C. The generalizability of results to other people and settings

Answer 110

C. The generalizability of results to other people and settings ## Footnote External validity assesses whether findings apply beyond the specific study context.

Question 111

A test shows consistent results when administered multiple times, but it fails to measure what it claims. **This instrument demonstrates:** * A. High reliability, low validity * B. Low reliability, high validity * C. Both high reliability and validity

Answer 111

A. High reliability, low validity ## Footnote High reliability indicates consistency, while low validity indicates the test does not measure what it claims.

Question 112

A test produces nearly identical results when given twice to the same group two weeks apart. This demonstrates: * A. Test–retest reliability * B. Content validity * C. Construct validity

Answer 112

A. Test–retest reliability ## Footnote Test–retest reliability measures temporal stability—consistency of results over time.

Question 113

The researcher concludes that program results likely apply to other agencies with similar clients. This references: * A. Statistical power * B. Internal validity * C. External validity

Answer 113

C. External validity ## Footnote Generalizability defines external validity.

Question 114

A researcher finds that a test correlates highly with another established measure of the same construct. This supports: * A. Face validity * B. Randomization * C. Concurrent validity

Answer 114

C. Concurrent validity ## Footnote Concurrent validity demonstrates that new and established tools assess the same trait effectively.

Question 115

Random assignment to control and treatment reduces confounds, strengthening: * A. External validity * B. Face validity * C. Internal validity and causal inference

Answer 115

C. Internal validity and causal inference ## Footnote Randomization clarifies cause-and-effect.

Question 116

If post-test gains cannot be tied to the intervention, the study lacks: * A. Sampling precision * B. Internal validity * C. External reliability

Answer 116

B. Internal validity and causal inference ## Footnote Without control of variables, causal inference is weak.

Question 117

A counselor is categorizing clients by religious affiliation (Christian, Muslim, Jewish, Hindu, etc.). This represents which **scale of measurement?** * A. Nominal * B. Ordinal * C. Interval

Answer 117

A. Nominal ## Footnote Nominal scales categorize data without any order or ranking.

Question 118

A counselor develops a scale to measure motivation to change in addiction recovery. Scores range from 1–10, and differences between points are equal, but there is no true zero. **This scale is:** * A. Interval * B. Ratio * C. Ordinal

Answer 118

A. Interval ## Footnote Interval scales have equal intervals between values but lack a true zero point.

Question 119

A counselor notices that when the SAT is administered to students in urban schools, their scores tend to underestimate college GPA compared to suburban students. **This suggests a problem with:** * A. Test-retest reliability * B. Criterion-related validity * C. Standard error of measurement

Answer 119

B. Criterion-related validity ## Footnote Criterion-related validity refers to how well one measure predicts an outcome based on another measure.

Question 120

Combining results from many small studies shows: * A. Meta-analysis as cumulative evidence review * B. Cross-sectional correlation * C. Factor analysis

Answer 120

A. Meta-analysis as cumulative evidence review ## Footnote Meta-analysis aggregates findings to refine conclusions.

Question 121

Which threat to internal validity occurs when participants drop out before a study ends? * A. Instrumentation * B. Attrition * C. Testing

Answer 121

B. Attrition ## Footnote Participant loss can distort outcomes if those who leave differ systematically from those who remain.

Question 122

A research article reports results as **“p < .01.”** What does this indicate? * A. The results are highly likely due to chance * B. The probability of error is less than 1% * C. The findings cannot be replicated

Answer 122

B. The probability of error is less than 1% ## Footnote A p-value less than .01 indicates a very low probability that the results are due to chance.

Question 123

A study finds that participants who received the new intervention improved more than those in the control group. The counselor concludes the program shows: * A. Poor internal consistency * B. Positive treatment effect * C. Sampling bias

Answer 123

B. Positive treatment effect ## Footnote Outcome differences indicate program efficacy when controls are adequate.

Question 124

A researcher clarifies how constructs are operationally defined before data collection. This step ensures: * A. Conceptual clarity and measurement validity * B. Convenience sampling efficiency * C. Statistical manipulation

Answer 124

A. Conceptual clarity and measurement validity ## Footnote Precise operationalization grounds reliable, interpretable research.

Question 125

When referencing multiple authors, APA style uses an ampersand (&) in which context? * A. In narrative citations only * B. In both narrative and parenthetical forms * C. In parenthetical citations only

Answer 125

C. In parenthetical citations only ## Footnote The ampersand is reserved for parenthetical citations (e.g., Smith & Jones, 2022); “and” is used narratively.

Question 126

A counselor divides test items into two halves and compares the results to measure consistency. **This is assessing:** * A. Split-half reliability * B. Inter-rater reliability * C. Test-retest reliability

Answer 126

A. Split-half reliability ## Footnote Split-half reliability measures internal consistency by comparing two halves of a test.

Question 127

In an experiment, the independent variable is best defined as: * A. The outcome being measured * B. The statistical mean * C. The factor manipulated to observe its effect

Answer 127

C. The factor manipulated to observe its effect ## Footnote The independent variable is deliberately altered to test its influence on the dependent variable.

Question 128

A counselor adapts a manualized treatment for cultural fit while maintaining its structure. This represents: * A. Protocol drift * B. Cultural neutrality * C. Evidence-based adaptation

Answer 128

C. Evidence-based adaptation ## Footnote Effective evidence-based practice blends fidelity to research with respect for cultural context.

Question 129

A synthesis of multiple studies on one topic is known as a: * A. Meta-analysis * B. Case study * C. Pilot trial

Answer 129

A. Meta-analysis ## Footnote Meta-analyses aggregate evidence to reveal larger trends.

Question 130

A study finds an intervention produces improvement but with inconsistent results across raters. This weakens: * A. Construct validity * B. Ecological validity * C. Interrater reliability

Answer 130

C. Interrater reliability ## Footnote Disagreement among raters undermines measurement consistency.

Question 131

High correlation between two test halves supports: * A. Factor stability * B. Predictive validity * C. Split-half reliability

Answer 131

C. Split-half reliability ## Footnote Agreement between halves evidences internal consistency.