Section 2 Topic 2 Working Memory Model (Intro and Structure)

Question 1

Why is this model a development of MSM?

Answer 1

In the previous topic, different types of LTM have been described;
here the working memory model (WMM) replaces the single STM
store with several components. Initially three such components
were suggested. This model is not a replacement for the multi-store
model but a development of it.

Question 2

What did Baddeley and Hitch use to show you can perform 2 tasks at once?

Answer 2

Baddeley and Hitch used dual-process tasks to establish that their
participants could perform two mental tasks at once. One such task
was for participants to make statements based on reasoning at the
same time as recalling six numbers that they had seen before the
reasoning part of the test. Most participants could manage it,
although the speed of the reasoning task slowed slightly.

Question 3

What can be the aim, experimental hypothesis and null hypothesis?

Answer 3

Baddeley and Hitch were
aiming to see ‘the effect of performing two tasks at the same timeon the ability to perform either task separately’.

The experimental
hypothesis could be that ‘when participants are asked to make
statements based on reasoning at the same time as recalling six
numbers that they had seen before the reasoning part of the test,
they will reduce their speed on the reasoning task’.

The null hypothesis differs in that it gives the prediction of no difference
occurring so; when participants are asked to make statements
based on reasoning at the same time as recalling six numbers that
they had seen before the reasoning part of the test, there will be no
difference in the speed on the reasoning task.

Question 4

What 3 things does Baddeley and Hitch’s model for
memory processing comprise of?

Answer 4

A Central executive which controls and monitors the Phonological
loop and the Visual-spatial sketch-pad.

Question 5

Why should we use the word processes and not stores for the Baddeley and Hitch model?

Answer 5

Note that the word ‘stores’ is appropriate for Atkinson and Shiffrin’s
multi-store model because they are describing the structure of
memory. Baddeley and Hitch are talking about the different types
of processing, so don’t use ‘stores’ when describing their model.
Use ‘processes’ or ‘systems’ instead.

Question 6

Can you draw a diagram of the Baddeley and Hitch model

Answer 6

Use the words Central Executive, Phonological Loop, Episodic Buffer, Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad, and LTM

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Question 7

Can you describe the Central Executive do?

Answer 7

The central executive (CE) acts as a filter to determine which information received by the sense organs is and isn’t attended to. It processes information in all sensory forms, directs information to the model’s slave systems and collects responses.
It’s limited in capacity and can only effectively cope with one strand of information at a time. It therefore selectively attends to particular types of information, attaining a balance between tasks when attention needs to be divided between them, for example, talking while driving. It also permits us to switch attention between differen inputs of information.

Question 8

What is the 2 research points for the Central Executive?

Answer 8

1. Baddeley (1996) discovered participants found it difficult to generate lists of random numbers while simultaneously switching between pressing numbers and letters on a keyboard, suggesting the two tasks were competing for CE resources. This supports the idea of the CE being limited in capacity and only being able to cope with one type of information at a time.
2. D’Esposito et al. (1995) found using fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging - see Chapter 6) scans that the prefrontal cortex was activated when verbal and spatial tasks were performed simultaneously, but not when performed separately, suggesting the brain area to be associated with the workings of the CE.
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Question 9

What is the 2 evaluation points for the Central Executive?

Answer 9

1. Little is known about the central executive. It isn’t clear how it works or what it does. This vagueness means it can be used to explain almost any experimental results. If two tasks cannot be performed together, then the two processing components are seen as conflicting, or it is argued that the tasks exceed the central executive’s capacity. If two tasks can be done simultaneously, it’s argued they don’t exceed the available resources, in essence a circular argument (an argument that continually proves itself).
2. The CE is probably better understood as a component controlling the focus of attention rather than being a memory store, unlike the PL and the VSS, which are specialised memory stores.

Question 10

Describe the phonological loop?
(3 points)

Answer 10

1. The PL deals with auditory information (sensory information in the form of sound) and the order of the information, like whether words occurred before or after each other.
2. The PL is similar to the rehearsal system of the MSM, with a limited capacity determined by the amount of information that can be spoken out loud in about two seconds. As it’s mainly an acoustic store, confusions occur with similar sounding words.
3. Baddeley (1986) divided the PL into two sub-parts; the primary acoustic store (PAS) and the articulatory process (AP). The PAS, or inner ear, stores words recently heard, while the AP, or inner voice, keeps information in the PL through sub-vocal repetition of information and is linked to speech production.

Question 11

What is the Primary Acoustic Store?

Answer 11

Primary acoustic store (PAS) - part of the phonological loop, stores words heard

Question 12

What is the Articulatory process?

Answer 12

Articulatory process (AP) - part of the phonological acoustic store, allows sub-vocal repetition of information within the store

Question 13

What is 2 research for the phonological loop?

Answer 13

1. Trojani & Grossi (1995) reported a case study of SC, who had brain damage affecting the functioning of his PL but not his VSS, suggesting the PL to be a separate system.
2. Baddeley et al. (1975) reported on the word length effect, where participants recalled more short words in serial order than longer words, supporting the idea that capacity of the PL is set by how long it takes to say words, rather than the actual number of words.

Question 14

What are 2 evaluative points for the Phonological loop?

Answer 14

1. PET scans show that different brain areas are activated when doing verbal and visual tasks, which suggests that the PL and the visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS) are separate systems, reflected in the biology of the brain.
2. The PL is strongly associated with the evolution of human vocal language, with the development of the slave system seen as producing a significant increase in the short-term ability to remember vocalisations. This then helped the learning of more complex language abilities, such as grammar and expressing meaning.

Question 15

Describe the Visuo-spatial sketchpad (VSS)?

Answer 15

The VSS, or inner eye, handles non-phonological information and is a temporary store for visual and spatial items and the relationships between them (what items are and where they’re located).

Logie (1995) suggests sub-dividing the store into a visual cache (VC), which stores visual material about form and colour, and an inner scribe (IS), which handles spatial relationships and rehearses and transfers information in the visual cache to the CE.

Question 16

Why is the Visuo-spatial sketchpad useful?

Answer 16

The VSS helps individuals
to navigate around and interact with their physical environment, with information being coded and rehearsed through the use of mental pictures.

Question 17

How did Logie (1995) suggest subdividing the information?

Answer 17

Logie (1995) suggests sub-dividing the store into a visual cache (VC), which stores visual material about form and colour, and an inner scribe (IS), which handles spatial relationships and rehearses and transfers information in the visual cache to the CE.

Question 18

What 2 research pieces support the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad?

Answer 18

1. Gathercole & Baddeley (1993) found participants had difficulty simultaneously tracking a moving point of light and describing the angles on a hollow letter F, because both tasks involved using the VSS. Other participants had little difficulty in tracking the light and performing a simultaneous verbal task, as both tasks involve using the VSS and the PL, indicating the VSS to be a separate slave system.
2. Klauer & Zhao (2004) reported more interference between two visual tasks than between a visual and a spatial task, implying the existence of a separate visual cache and inner scribe.

Question 19

What are 2 evaluative points for the Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad?

Answer 19

1. As well as showing the PL and the VSS to be located in different brain areas, PET scans also show brain activation in the left hemisphere of the brain with visual tasks and activation in the right hemisphere with spatial information, which further supports the idea of dividing the VSS into a separate VC and IS.
2. Studies of the VSS (and the PL) often feature a dual task technique, where participants have to perform two simultaneous activities. However, the actual tasks performed are often not ones encountered much in everyday life and so such studies can be accused of being artificial and lacking in mundane realism.

Question 20

What is the episodic buffer? (2 points)

Answer 20

1. Baddeley (2000) added a third slave system, the episodic buffer (EB), as the model needs a general store to operate properly.
2. The PL and the VSS deal with the processing and temporary storage of specific types of information,
   but have limited capacity, and the CE has no storage capacity, and so cannot contain items relating to visual and acoustic properties.
3. Therefore, the EB was introduced to explain how it is possible to temporarily store information combined together from the CE, the PL, the VSS and LTM.

Question 21

What are 2 pieces of research for the Episodic Buffer?

Answer 21

1. Prabhakaran et al. (2000) used fMRI scans to find greater right-frontal brain activation for combined verbal and spatial information, but greater posterior activation for non-combined information, providing biological evidence of an EB that allows temporary storage of integrated information.
2. Alkhalifa (2009) reported on a patient with severely impaired LTM who demonstrated STM capacity of up to 25 prose items, far exceeding the capacity of both the PL and the VSS. This suggests the existence of an EB, which holds items in working memory until they are recalled.