Topic 1 Long Term Memory

Question 1

What are 3 points of Long Term Memory (LTM)

Answer 1

1. LTM involves storing information over lengthy periods of time, indeed for a whole lifetime, with information stored for longer than 30 seconds counting as LTM.
2. All information within LTM will have originally passed through the SR and STM, though may have undergone different forms of processing during the process.
3. Research indicates that there are several different types of LTM (see Types of LTM, pages 69-74) and LTMs are not of equal strength. Strong LTMs can be retrieved easily, like when your birthday is, but weaker LTMs may need more prompting.

Question 2

Why are memories not necessarily accurate?

Answer 2

LTMs are not passive (unchanging) – over time they may change or merge with other LTMs. This is why memories aren’t necessarily constant or accurate. There are several explanations for forgetting from LTM (see Explanations for forgetting, pages 76–83). Research also indicates that the process of shaping and storing LTMs is spread through multiple brain regions.

Question 3

What is coding in the LTM?

Answer 3

Coding involves the form by which LTMs are stored - the means by which information is shaped into representation of memories. Coding of information will be stronger (and thus the memory more retrievable) the deeper the level of processing of a stimulus that occurs while it is being experienced.

With verbal material, coding in LTM is mainly semantic (based on meaning), though coding occurs in other forms too, research indicating a visual and an acoustic code. (See Classic research - Baddeley (1966) on page 55.)

Question 4

What are 2 pieces of research to support LTM coding?

Answer 4

1. Frost (1972) gave participants sixteen drawings in four categories of animals, clothing, vehicles and furniture, differing in visual orientation, like angle of viewing perspective. The order of recall of items suggested participants used visual and semantic coding, implying evidence for a visual as well as semantic code in LTM.
2. Nelson & Rothbart (1972) showed that acoustic coding also occurs in LTM, as participants made recall errors involving homophones, words that are pronounced the same but have different meanings, like ‘night’ and ‘knight’, again suggesting that coding in LTM has several varieties.

Question 5

What is the evaluation of LTM coding?

Answer 5

1. It’s difficult to see how smells and tastes could be coded semantically and logic suggests songs are encoded acoustically, supporting the idea of several forms of encoding in LTM.
2. Different types of LTM involve different brain areas, with research suggesting that they are encoded in different ways, which implies that there are varying forms of coding within LTM.

Question 6

What is the capacity of the LTM?

Answer 6

The potential capacity of LTM is unlimited. Information may be lost due to decay and interference, but such losses don’t occur due to limitation of capacity.

Question 7

What is the 2 research for capacity of the LTM?

Answer 7

1. Anokhin (1973) estimated the number of possible neuronal connections in the human brain is 1 followed by 10.5 million kilometres of noughts. He concluded ‘no human yet exists who can use all the potential of their brain’, suggesting the capacity of LTM is limitless.
2. Wagenaar (1986) created a diary of 2,400 events over six years and tested himself on recall of events rather than dates, finding he too had excellent recall, again suggesting the capacity of LTM is extremely large. Diary studies, however, are a type of case study and therefore not representative of the general population and there could also be an element of bias as people are testing themselves.

Question 8

What is the 2 evaluation points for the capacity of the LTM?

Answer 8

1. The capacity of LTM is assumed to be limitless, as research has not been able to determine a finite capacity.
2. There may be an evolutionary basis to LTM; animal studies, like that by Fagot & Cook (1996), showed that pigeons can memorise 1,200 picture response associations. Baboons still hadn’t reached their capacity after three years of training, memorising 5,000 associations. This suggests that an enlarged memory capacity has a survival value, which has been acted upon by natural selection.

Question 9

What is the duration of the LTM?

Answer 9

Duration of LTM depends on an individual’s lifespan, as memories can last for a lifetime; many elderly people have detailed childhood memories. Items in LTM have a longer duration if originally well coded and certain LTMs have a longer duration, like those based on skills rather than facts (see Types of LTM, page 69).

Material in STM that isn’t rehearsed is quickly forgotten, but information in LTM doesn’t have to be continually rehearsed to be retained.

Question 10

What is 2 research pieces for the duration of the LTM?

Answer 10

1. Bahrick et al. (1975) showed 400 participants aged between 17 and 74 years a set of photos and a list of names, some of which were ex- school friends, and asked them to identify ex-school friends. Those who’d left high school in the last fifteen years identified 90 per cent of faces and names, while those who’d left 48 years previously identified 80 per cent of names and 70 per cent of faces, suggesting memory for faces is long lasting.
2. Goldman & Seamon (1992) asked participants to identify odours of everyday products experienced in the last two years and odours not experienced since childhood. Although identification (by name) was better for more recent odours, there was significant identification of less- recent odours, suggesting duration of olfactory (smell-based) information in LTM is very long lasting.

Question 11

What are the 2 evaluative points for the duration of the LTM?

Answer 11

1. Sometimes information in LTM appears to be lost, but may be a problem of access to the information rather than it not being in LTM (see Explanations for forgetting, page 76).
2. The type of testing techniques used may affect findings from studies of duration of LTM. Recall is often better when asking participants to recognise stimuli, rather than getting them to recall stimuli.