1
Q
What is the definition of geopolitics?
A
International relations as influenced by geographical factors
2
Q
What is a superpower?
A
A nation that can project its power and influence anywhere in the world, and be a dominant global force
3
Q
What are examples of superpowers?
A
- Current:
-US, EU, China - Emerging:
-India - Regional powers:
-Brazil, South Africa - Former superpowers:
-Japan, USSR, British Empire
3
Q
Which country has the stronger military US/China?
A
- US spends the most money on its military ($778bil), and largest portion of it’s GDP
-China is increasing military spending - USA employs over 2 million people
4
Q
Which country has the stronger economy US/China?
A
- US has a larger GDP per capita ($63,000 compared to $10,500)
- Similar GDPs: $21.5t (US), $23.5t (China)
5
Q
What are the advantages and disadvantages of ranking superpowers?
Method: Sum ranks for each category, then find average ranking
A
- A
-Simple to calculate
-Provides a clear ranking - D
-No weighing of criteria
-Doesn’t take difference in size into account
-Limited comparison of power
6
Q
What is normalisation?
A
- A way of scaling data in different data sets to ensure each has the same variance
-enabling a direct comparison and reducing the impact of outliers
7
Q
What does ranking superpowers show us?
A
-The closeness of the US and China
-The gap between these 2 countries and other countries
8
Q
What are some types and examples of military power?
A
- Military force to exert pressure
-e.g. USA on middle east, Russia on Ukraine - Large m being viewed as more powerful
-e.g. North Korea, India - Types of weapons
-e.g. nuclear: France, Israel, Pakistan, Russia, NK - Ability to project military might around the world
-e.g. Navy, military posts: UK, US, France
9
Q
What are the cultural characteristics of a power?
A
- Rich cultural history
- Way of life voluntarily enjoyed around the world
-e.g. music, fashion
10
Q
What are the political characteristics of a power?
A
- Multilateral agreement (e.g. USMCA)
- Powerful allies
- Permanent seat on UN security council
11
Q
What are the demographics of a power?
A
- Significant % of global population
- Attracts migrants
12
Q
What is the economic strength of a power like?
A
- Influence over trade
- High GDP/trade
- TNC HQs
- Hard/powerful currency
13
Q
What is the military strength of a power like?
A
- High spending on military hardware and personnel
- Global military control
- Intellignece networks
- Military alliances
14
Q
How are powers and resources related?
A
- They have access to/or control supply of valuable commodities
15
Q
What is hard power?
A
- Power through force or coercion
- Involves: military and economic sanctions
16
Q
What is soft power?
A
- Power through favour or persuasion
- Involves culture, ideology and institutions
17
Q
How can economics maintain power?
A
- Favouring ceratin trade partners
- Trade blocs and alliances
- Using aid to influence policy
- Using economic sanctions against countries
- Giving allies economic health
18
Q
How can soft power maintain a countries power?
A
- Using the media to promote a particular image and message
- The values and ideologies of some nations are seen as appealing
- Exporting culture in the form of:
-Film/TV
-Globally recognised brands
19
Q
How has soft power maintained the status of the UK?
History
A
- International appeal of universities
- Relationships of the British commonwealth
- British common law legal approach
20
Q
How has soft power maintained the status of the UK?
Culture
A
- BBC international broadcasting
- English is the most widely spoken language after Mandarin
- Some sports seen as British (Football, Rugby, Cricket)
-2012 Olympics was a demonstartion of UKs capability and contributions to the world
21
Q
How has soft power maintained the status of the UK?
Diplomacy/politics
A
- Widest network of embassies and high commissions
- Seats on all major IGOs
- Influential and respected in negotiations
-e.g. EU sanctions on Russia following Ukraine invasion
22
Q
What are examples of the USAs hard power?
Military
A
- Confronting the Taliban and assassinating Osama bin Laden
- Intervening in Vietnam war, Gulf war (Iraq), and Afghanistan
- Worlds largest and most technologically advanced systems (planes, ships, tanks etc)
This reduced during the trump administration
23
Q
What are examples of the USAs hard power?
Economic
A
- GDP per capita is x4 of China (total is similar)
- Largest trading partner for many countries
- Provides the most financial assisstance to other countries
- 80% of all global financial transactions, and 87% of foreign currency market deals are in the US
24
Why is soft power not as effective as hard power?
* Resources for soft power develop over a long period of time
* Hard power requires less time, and its resources are tangible
25
What is smartpower?
* An approach that underlines the necessity of a strong military, but also invests heavily in alliances, partnerships and institutions
* Capacity to combine H&S power in a way that is mutually reinforcing - a combination is necessary
26
What is one way the UK has strengthened it's soft power?
* BBC world service was to recieve £289m from government in 2015
-To invest in expanding to other countries e.g. North Korea
27
What is the heartland theory?
* Developed by Halford Mackinder in 1904
* He believed that to exert influence, it was crucial for a country to control strategic areas of land
-Control of this area meant control of most of the worlds human and physical resources
* An area from Russia to China
28
What is a pivot area?
* Have self-sufficiency in food
* Inaccessible by sea (have a critical defensive advantage)
* Have mountains which means a reduced vulnerability to land attack
28
What are some other geopolitical ideas?
* The romans 'natural border' - e.g. rivers
* Nazi Germany lebensraum - environmental determinism
* USA 'containment' of communism
29
What is a bi-polar world, and an example?
* A world where 2 superpowers with differing ideologies compete for power
-e.g. USA/USSR (Russia), during the cold war era
29
What is a uni-polar world, and an example?
* A world that is dominated by one superpower
-e.g. the British empire in the 19th century
30
What is a multi-polar world, and an example?
* A world where many superpowers and emerging powers compete for power in different regions
-e.g. what the world is moving towards with USA/China/EU
31
How did the British empire gain power?
* Most of their expansion was through the establishment of trading posts and based on money/wealth
-they could be forceful and violent (e.g. in India)
* Transplated sugar canes (value increased)
-Transatlantic slave trade provided labour to plantation colonies in the Caribbean
* Exerted control through:
-Religious settlements
-Trading companies (e.g. EIC)
-Bought the largest shareholding in the Suez canal (also occupied Egypt)
32
How much power did the British empire have?
* Made up of 23% of world population, and 24% of total land area
* Had colonies on all continents throughout its time
* Controlled 30% of Africa
33
What were some ways the British empire expanded?
* Trading routes - down past S.America (east coast), west coast of africa, round the south of asia
* Oceanic cables - followed a similar route to the trading routes, went round the north of africa and through the middle east as well, down to australia instead of round asia
* British emigration and missionaries to australia and US
* Trading posts in the levant
* Military posts - S. Africa, W.Africa, Gibraltar, S.India, HK, Malaysia
34
What is the significance of eastern europe in the heartland theory?
* Mackinder said, "who rules eastern europe commands the heartland"
* They are close in proximity to take advantage of the resources
* Countries in E.europe are seen as the only potential candidates to invade the heartland
34
Why was the region between Russia and China seen to be the 'heartland'?
* Size of it
* Wealth of resources - e.g. oil
* High population
* Natural barriers - e.g. mountains surrounding the area such as Carpathian mountains to the wes,t, Baltic sea to the North
35
What are criticisms of the heartland theory?
* Impractical
* Modern day technology can overcome the natural barriers
* Mackinders map of the world is seen as inaccurate (atlantic sea is shown as larger than it actually is)
36
What is imperialism?
A relationship of political, economic or cultural control between geographical areas
37
What is colonialism?
* The political rule of a nation by another
37
What is colonization?
* The physical settling of people from a colonial power within their colony
38
What were the benefits for Britain from its empire?
* Able to exploit resources and the workforce
-Useful during the war (large Indian army e.g.), and to rebuild the country (windrush etc)
-Resources fueled the industrial revolution
* International trade routes - resources could be transported to different colonies
39
What was the British empires colonial legacy?
* Current presidential palace in Delhi was built by the British as a symbol of political power
* Built an extensive rail network in India
* Language
* Commonwealth
40
What was the importance of the navy in expanding the British empire?
* Founded on exploration and sea power
* Royal navy dominated seas from 1700-1930
-Provided a link between home country and overseas colonies
* Invested more money in guns and ships than other colonies
-e.g. navy surrounded ports of india as a symbol of military power
40
What was the mercantilist phase in the rise of the British empire?
* An economic policy from the 16th to the 18th century
* Focused on increasing national wealth through an export surplus
* Accumlating resources (e.g. precious metals), and asserting state control to benefit Britain
40
What was the imperial phase in the rise of the British empire?
* 1815-1914
* Marked by large territorial expansion through direct rule
-Britain moved from securing influence through trade and diplomacy, to directly ruling
41
What was the de-colonisation phase in the fall of the British empire?
* Loss of military influence due to losses in the war
* After the WWII, the Uk was bankrupt and could not support the countries in its empire - anti-colonial movements began, and many pushed independence (by 1970)
42
What are the BRICS and MINT nations?
* BRICS - brazil, russia, india, china, south africa (+egypt, ethiopia, indonesia, iran, UAE)
* MINT - mexico, indonesia, nigeria, turkey
43
What were the justifications of colonialism?
* Modernism
-The world can be improved by human intervention - Europe could do this by colonising
-Europeans were modern, civilised and superior compared to natives
-The british were naturally intelligent, and natural rulers - could&should rule
* Evangelical christianity
-Spread the christian word through churches and schools
-belief that natives were racially inferior
-colonialism was a divine calling
* Social darwinism
-strong should survive over the weak
44
What do BRICS&MINT nations have in common?
* Rapid economic growth
* Highb populations
* Increasing influence in global economic and political systems
44
Name 8 out of the 38 members of the OECD.
1. austria 2.australia 3.belgium 4.canada 5.chile 6.colombia 7.costa rica 8.czechia 9.denmark 10.estonia 11.finland 12.france 13.germany 14.greece 15.hungary 16.iceland
17.ireland 18.israel 19.italy 20.japan 21. s.korea 22. latvia 23. lithuania 24. luxembourg 25. mexico 26. netherlands 27. NZ 28. norway 29. poland 30. portugal 31. slovakia 32. slovenia 33. spain 34. sweden 35. switzerland 36. turkey 37. UK 38. USA
44
What is the OECD?
* Organisation for economic co-operation and development
* Intergovernmental economic organisation
* Founded in 1960
44
How does the USA currently exert superpower status?
* Membership of intergovernmental economic organisations
* Political influence
* Cultural influence - Americanisation, Hollywood
* Membership of NATO
* Nuclear weapons state
* Geogrpahical location
* Population size
45
What are the strengths of India as an emerging power?
* Demographic
-Youthful population with large economic potential
* Cultural
-English is widely spoken
-Graduate education is widespread
-Improved opurtunities for female education
* Military
-Nuclear armed
Sophisticated space and missile technology
46
What is the goal of the oecd?
* Founded to stimulate economic progress and world trade
* Described as commited to democracy and the market economy, providing a platform to
-compare policy experiences
-seeking answers to common problems
-identifying good practices
co-ordinate domestic & international policies of members
46
What are the strengths of Brazil as an emerging power?
* Political
-Regional leader in Latin America
* Economic
-Strong agricultural economy and exporter
-Energy independent in oil & biofuels
-Growing middle class and maturing consumer economy
* Cultural
-Influential with 2014 world cup and 2016 olympics
47
What are the strengths of Russia as an emerging power?
* Military
-Nuclear power with large military capacity
* Economic
-Huge oil and gas reserves
* Political
-Permanent seat on UN security council
48
What are the strengths of China as an emerging power?
* Economic
-Highly educated, technically innovative population
-Nearly worlds largest economy
-Leads in fields e.g. renewable energy
-Modern infrastructure for transport e.g. high speed rail
* Military
-Technology and reach is growing, challenging the US
49
What are the strengths of Mexico as an emerging power?
* Political
-Slowly becoming more democratic and, 'open for business'
* Economic
-Part of the USMCA
-Has an advanced economy
50
What are the weaknesses of Brazil as an emerging power?
* Military
-Small, only regional intervention capacity
- Economic
-Suffers from boom and bust phases
-Education levels lag
- Environmental
-Needs to control forest destruction
- Political
-Populist politics (unstable governments and corruption)
50
What are the strengths of Indonesia as an emerging power?
* Demographic
-Youthful, potentially dynamic population with economic growth potential
* Economic
-Large untapped natural resources
50
What are the strengths of Turkey as an emerging power?
- Economic
-Increasing intergrated with EU, could become a member
- Demographic
-Youthful population with good education levels
- Political
-Member of NATO
51
What are the weaknesses of Russia as an emerging power?
* Demographic
-Aging and declining population
- Economic
-Extreme inequality
-Overly dependent on oil and gas
- Political
-Difficult diplomatic and geopolitical relationships with EU and USA
- Military
-Much of the hardware/technology is outdated and from the USSR
52
What are the weaknesses of India as an emerging power?
- Economic
-Possible future resource shortage (e.g. water, energy)
-Poor transport/energy infrastructure
-High levels of poverty
- Political
-Poor relations with neighbours
53
What are the weaknesses of China as an emerging power?
- Demographic
-Ageing population
- Environmental
-Pollution issues (air and water)
- Political
-Tense relationships with neighbours
-Limited geopolitical role
- Economic
-Raising wages raising costs for TNCs
-Relies on imported raw materials
53
What are the weaknesses of Indonesia as an emerging power?
- Environmental
-Deforestation is growing
- Economic
-High levels of urban & rural poverty
- Political
-Internal political instability
53
What are the weaknesses of Mexico as an emerging power?
- Cultural
-Drug related crime (poor global image)
- Economic
-Increasingly obese population, so high healthcare costs
- Demographic
-Many well-educated,skilled workerks migrate from here (sort of brain drain)
54
What are the weaknesses of Turkey as an emerging power?
- Political
-Internal problems with Kurdish minority
-External instability in middle east on its borders
55
Which countries are part of the G20?
1.Argentina 2.Australia 3.Brazil 4.Canada 5.China 6.France 7.Germany 8.India 9.Indonesia 10.Italy 11.Japan 12.Mexico 13.Russia 14.Saudi Arabia 15.South Africa 16.South Korea 17.Turkey 18.UK 19.US 20.EU
56
What are examples of one belt one road projects?
* 2014-2018, $32bn was invested in Pakistan and $17bn was invested in Indonesia
* In Hanoi, Vietnam, the new airport and urban rail system were built using some Chinese funding
56
What is China's one belt, one road policy?
* Launched in 2013
* Invests in infrastructure in Asia to develop trade routes
* Also to build relationships with Chinese businesses and the Chinese government
56
What is the aim of the one belt one road initiative?
* If a country's trade routes & infrastructure are better with China - more likely to import and export goods
* Chinese businesses often earn money from the projects
* China invests money into infrastructure projects - interest is paid on the loans
57
What is Rostows modernisation theory?
* Neo-liberal approach (free market/capitalist)
* Developed in the 60s
* Describes the dominance of the USA/UK based on industrial growth and wealth
58
What are the pros and cons of the modernisation theory?
* Pros
-Simple to understand
-Accurate (most developed countries follow this)
* Cons
-Only looks at economy and not political/cultural aspects of power
59
What did political ideologies did Rostow believe?
* Free trade and a western model of democracy and capitalism
* Socialist and communist countries couldn't expect to develop without following his model
59
How was the modernisation theory influential?
* Led to many developing countries attempting to create the preconditions for take-off
-by investing in key infrastructure and industries
* Some succeeded (asian tigers)
* Other were burdened with debt
59
What sort of approach does franks dependency theory take?
* Neo-marxist approach (exploitation)
59
Describe the modernisation theory.
1. Traditional society
2. Pre-conditions for take-off
3. Take-off
4. Drive to maturity
5. High mass consumption
60
Describe the dependency theory.
* Wealthy states make up the core, and poorer underdeveloped states make up the periphery
61
How does the periphery help develop the core in the dependency theory?
* Raw materials are cheaply extracted by the core to sustain its economic growth and wealth
* Underdevelopment in the periphery is necessary for the development of capitalism in the core
62
How does the periphery benefit the core in the dependency theory?
* Provides:
-Political support
-Brain drain
-Raw materials
-Debt repayments/purchases
62
How does the core benefit the periphery in the dependency theory?
* Provides:
-Political and economic ideas
-Manufactured goods
-Polluting industry
-Aid
63
What is the vicious cycle of development?
* A form of cumulative causation
-->production of agricultural and other primary produce --> goods exported in raw state at low value --> low profits --> no investment in machinery or manufacturing -->
64
How should countries escape the vicious cycle of development?
* State actively invests inwardly and puts up trade barriers
* Nationalisation of key industries
* Look at failure of countries that have tried
65
What is the world systems theory?
* Doesn't see the world as developed vs developing
* Global system of the core, semi-periphery and periphery
66
What are criticisms of the world systems theory?
* It is an analysis of the worlds patterns of power and growth rather than a detailed explanation of them
66
What are Kondratieff cycles?
* Developed by Russia in 1925
* World economy experiences cycles of high and low growth, resulting from cycles of cumulative causation
* New technology/oppurtunity triggers high, risky investment leading to rapid uncontrolled growth
-As it matures, oppurtunities decline and economic growth stutters
66
What are advantages of the world systems theory?
* Development should be viewed globally rather than individually
* Has flexibilty - countries are free to move
* Fits todays world (semi-periphery = emerging)
67
What is an IGO?
* Intergovernmental organisation - several countries working together on issues of common interest
* Make key decisions on economy, politics/conflicts and the environment
68
What is a summary of what the IMF does?
* Promotes global economic stability by supporting countries in economic difficulty
69
How do superpowers and IGOs work together?
* Superpowers work to promote free trade and capitalism through a variety of IGOs - WB, IMF, WTO, WEF
70
What are examples of IGOs?
* International monetary fund
* World trade organisation
* World bank
* Organisation for economic co-operation and development
* World economic forum
71
What is a summary of what the WTO does?
* Works to promote international trade by removing trade barriers
72
What is a summary of what the WEF does?
* Swiss non-profit
* Acts as a discussion forum between businesses, politicians, IGOs, celebs
* Aims to improve the state of the world with economic focus
72
What is a summary of what the WB does?
* Lends money to developing countries to promote economic development
72
How are members of the UN security council decided?
* 5 permanent members (USA, UK France, Russia, China)
* 10 others rotate on a 2year cycle and must be voted in by at least 129/193 countries
72
How does voting work in the UN security council?
* Each council member has one vote, any decisions need at least nine
* Permanent members have the power to veto
73
Which IGOs is the UK part of?
* Founding member of:
-G8
-UN security council
-NATO
-OECD
- Has >4% voting power in the IMF
74
Which IGOs is the USA part of?
* Founding member of:
-G8
-UN security council
-NATO
-OECD
-has about 17% voting power in the IMF
75
Which IGOs is the Russia part of?
* Founding member of:
-G8 (may have been kicked out)
-UN security council
* Has <3% voting power in the IMF
76
Which IGOs is the India part of?
* Member of:
-G20
-temporary seat UN security council
-partner of the OECD
-has <3% voting power in the IMF
76
Which IGOs is the China part of?
* Member of:
-G20
-permanent UN security council seat
-partner of the OECD
-has >6% voting power in the IMF
77
Why was the united nations formed?
* To promote harmony and peace and countries working together (and avoid conflict)
78
When was the UN formed?
* After WWII in 1945
* To be a more effective way to prevent war
79
What can characterise capitalism?
* Private ownership of property and businesses
* The buying and selling of goods and services in a competitive free market with limited restrictions
* Wages based on supply vs demand, and skill level
* You have the right to make a profit and accumulate any amount of wealth
79
How does the UN enforce its aim?
* Has its HQ in New York
* Mandate peaceful resolutions
* Impose sanctions
* Use peacekeeping missions
-They are authorised to use force
* Have the security council that maintain global peace and security
80
What can characterise a centrally planned economy?
* Profits taken by the government and used to provide public services
* Government ownership of property and land
* Most businesses state owned
and wages determined centrally
80
Which TNCs have the largest sales in the world?
* Amazon and walmart ($514bil revenue 2019)
-20 countries have a higher GDP than them
* Apple makes the most profit in the world
80
Why are TNCs important?
* They are dominant economic forces, in the global economy, and economic/cultural globalisation in terms of technology (patents) and trade patterns
81
What is a publicly traded TNC?
* Shares are owned by numerous stakeholders around the world
-e.g. other TNCs, banks, financial institutions (pensions funds e.g.)
* Shareholders recieve a proportion of annual profits
82
What is a state owned TNC?
* Majority/wholly owned by a national government
* Often found in centrally planned economies/strategic industries
83
How do TNCs support superpowers and emerging powers?
* They allow them to spread their influence globally, both in terms of economics and culture
84
What is a patent?
* A type of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from making, using or selling an invention for a limited period in exchange for publishing and enabling disclose of the invention
84
How can TNCs grow?
* Through mergers and acquisitions
* TNCs have been growing rapidly and some of the largest TNCs now have annual profits that exceed the GDPs of many lower/middle income countries
85
How does the USA influence how the WB works?
* Largest single shareholder
* Only shareholder that has veto power
86
How does the USA influence how the IMF works?
* Makes the largest contribution to the IMF
* has 17% of the voting power
* Only nation able to make decisions unilaterally (veto power)
86
How does the USA influence how the WTO works?
* Original member
* Has power in trade negotiations between members
* Leading advocate for expanding negotiations to include services and intellectual property rights
87
How does the USA influence how the G20 works?
* Leading power (worlds largest economy)
* USA is not in favour of multilateralism, so this can weaken the ability of the G20 to act
88
How does the USA influence how the WEF works?
* 25% of attendees were from the USA
-Able to share businesses (network), and USA ideals, and start deals that favour the US
89
What is the purpose of the IPCC?
* Established in 1988
* Intergovernmental panel on climate change was created to provide policymakers with
-regular scientific assessment on climate change
-its implications
-future potential risks
| (environmental)
89
What is the purpose of the EU?
* Began as a trading alliance in 1956
* To promote peace and the well being of its citizens
* The idea that economic strength insures against poverty and it adopts a policy of convergence to reduce inequalities between its richest and poorest members
| (economic, military, environmental)
90
What is the purpose of NAFTA?
* Eliminate tariffs and trade barriers in/between member countries
| (economic)
90
What is NATO?
* Formed in 1949
* North atlantic treaty organisation
* Ensures the security and freedom of its member countries - an attack on one member is an attack on all
* Members are mainly European countries + USA
| (military)
91
How do superpowers influence the make-up and work of the UN security council?
* Dominate decision making
* Potentially paralyze the council by using veto power
* Lack of representation of emerging powers (may have opposing views to the permanent members)
-Makes council less representative of the modern world
* Leads to a lack of support for decisions from non-superpowers
91
What is the purpose of ANZUS?
* Formed in 1951
* Australia, New zealand, US security treaty
* Ensure peace and safety in the pacific region through a mutual defense agreement
* Allows Aus, NZ, USA, to co-operate on military matters in the pacific and beyond
| (military)
91
What is the purpose of ASEAN?
* Association of South-East-Asian nations
* Accelerate economic growth, social progress and cultural development of SE Asia
| (economic)
92
How do superpowers influence UN peacekeeping missions and their goals?
* A permanent member might veto a mission in order to protect national interests
* Missions (or vetos) can be used to further a countries own interests and agendas
* They can influence where missions are deployed and what resources are sent
93
How do superpowers influence the UN climate change conferences and actions (COP)?
| COP= conference of parties
* Superpowers are often the largest emitters
-their commitment is essential
-especially the USA (if they don't follow their goals, other countries may see it as not that important) as they keep leaving/rejoining
* Have diplomatic power to uphold/undermine the COPs
* A superpowers economy gives it influence over the deployment of new technology
94
What is an example of a superpower influencing a peacekeeping mission?
* Russia has a permanent seat on the security council, so can veto missions being sent to the Ukraine
95
Why are the worlds next superpowers likely to come from the BRICS?
* Only developing world economies with annual GDPs of over $1trillion
* Growth rates of 6-10% during the economic recession (2008-10) - exception of russia
* Combined account for more than 25% of world land area, and >40% of the worlds population
96
Why could the EU be a potential superpower?
* Ranks very highly in GDP per capita
* 3rd largest GDP (combined from member states)
* Prime position for global trade (e.g. large consumer market, worlds largesttrading bloc)
* Has large cultural influence
97
How did we move from a bilateral to a unilateral world?
* USSR and USA were the previous superpowers - power demonstrated through the space race, and cold war
* Due to the collapse of communism, and the break up of the USSR in 1991, the USA was left as the worlds only superpowers
98
What is holding China back from becoming a superpower?
* Has an ageing population due to its former 1 child policy - only 16.5% aged 0-14 in 2022 (India had 25%)
* Has few global brands, and little impact on global entertainment
* Per capita GDP is 28% of that of the USA (much lower)
* Doesn't attract international migration like the US does
* Censorship of social media limits spread of ideals in both directions - although tiktok is a chinese app, the international version is now banned here
98
What are examples of India being a potential emerging superpower?
* Economy worth $2trillion
* Growth of GDP, often over 10% per annum
* Cultural influence - Bollywood
* Doesn't have closed door policies like China
* Temporary seat on UN security council, member of other IGOs
99
What is holding India back from becoming a superpower?
* Need to improve governance - corruption problem (2006-10 illegal mineral pillage loss ~$3.6bn)
* Improve rates of education (lacking behind other BRICS) - Attendance as low as 60% for secondary education
100
Which country produces the most CO2 emissions?
* Highest CO2 emissions = China
* Highest CO2 emissions per capita = USA
100
What is the UNFCCC and its aim?
* United nations framework convention on climate change - set up at the Rio de Janeiro summit conference (kyoto protocol)
* Treaty for global climate action - reduce the rate of global warming (aims to prevent harmful interference with the climate system)
* Focuses on ensuring food security and promoting sustainable economic development
101
What is the Copenhagen accord?
* 2009 UNFCCC summit meeting
* Defined the long term aim of:
-limiting the maximum increase in global average temperature to no more than 2C above pre-industrial levels
102
How does the Paris agreement lead to change?
* Countries come up with INDCs/voluntary pledges - how much they are going to reduce emissions by
* Examples:
-China = -60% by 2030
-India = -33% by 2030
-EU-28 = -40% BY 2030
-USA = -26-28% by 2025
| INDC = intended nationally determined contributions
102
What is the Paris agreement?
* Legally binding framework for coordinating international efforts to tackle climate change
* Governments are required to contribute to mitigation and adaptation
103
What are the limitations of the Paris agreement?
* Self set targets are more likely to be realistic and attainable, when they should be aspirational
* No real punishment for those who fail to meet their pledges
* Based on the assumption wealthier countries will help poorer ones (poorer countries are less able to develop without fossil fuels and can't afford alternative sources of energy)
103
What effect does the USA leaving the Paris agreement have?
* Left under Trump, rejoined under Biden, and Trump plans on leaving again
* Sends a message to countries it is not that important
* Significant as the US is the 2nd largest annual emitter of CO2 (largest per capita)
104
Why did the USA leave the Paris agreement under Trump?
* Trump cited potential economic damage and unfair burdens
-Prioritizing fossil fuel production and opposing decarbonization effects
* Although, polls indicate a majority of Americans support clean energy
105
Why are TNCs significant global players?
* Size, global reach and wealth of TNCs make them key players in maintaining power and wealth
* Economic entities, but their influence also gives them economic leverage
* Governments compete to attract their FDI by providing them with tax breaks and deals
106
Where do the worlds largest TNCs originate from?
* The worlds superpowers and emerging powers
* 2024
-USA has 139 in fortune 500 (been a decline from 2005 to 2019)
-China has 133 (been major growth from 2005 to 2019)
-UK has 22
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What is the difference between patents, copyrights and trademarks?
* Patents for new inventions, technologies and systems
* Copyrights for artistic works
* Trademarks to protect designs and logos
107
How do superpowers dominate innovations?
* A royalty or license fee has to be paid to the inventor/designer for a patent/copyright/trademark
* 85% of royalty payments go to the USA, EU, and Japan
108
What does the domination of royalty payments by powerful countries suggest?
* Developed world TNCs are in the best position to invest in R&D - so patent holders tend to be new patent developers
* Existing superpowers and developed countries are paid for inventions and artistic works they created years ago
109
What is the CSTO?
| Collective security treaty organisation
* Formed in 1992 as the unified armed forces, and 2002 as the CSTO
* Members are: Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan
* Established for the collective security of member countries
* Involves the provision of national and collective security, intensive politico-military co-operation, foreign policy coordination
110
Which countries are allied with the USA, and which with Russia?
* USA
-Europe/UK
-Israel, Saudi Arabia, UAE (oil)
* Russia
-Iran
-China (invests in Africa also)
111
What is the purpose of the CPTPP?
| Comprehensive and progressive agreement for trans-pacific partnership
* Formed in 2018
* Worlds 4th largest free trade area by GDP
* To reduce trade barriers, encourage co-operation on regulations, and facilitate economic intergration
* Members are; Australia, Brunei, Canada, Chile, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, NZ, Peru, Singapore, UK, Vietnam
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What is the purpose of the USMCA?
| United states, mexico, canada agreement
* Replaced/previously NAFTA
* Support mutually beneficial trade, leading to freer markets, fairer trade, and robust economic growth in NA
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Why is climate change so important?
* Is an international issue and impacts everyone
* Requires global co-operation and decision making (e.g. UNFCC, COP, Paris Agreement)
* Causes include industrialisation, burning ff, pop increase (food, deforestation, farming, energy, tech)
-Disporportionate amount of this occurrs in the developed world - developing world impacted the most
114
How does UN peacekeeping bring together multiple countries?
* It is a global partnership - brings together different aspects of the UN in a combined effort to maintain international peace and security
* Personnel mainly sent by India, Canada, Ireland (countries seen as neutral but still want to help)
* Financial support is mainly provided by the P5 (especially the USA)
115
How do superpowers impact the effectiveness/decisions of UN peacekeeping and climate actions?
* For a UN peacekeeping mission to occur it must receive majority vote from security council - P5 can veto
-e.g. Russia vetoes Ukraine missions
-e.g. China mainly abstains from votes
-e.g. Financial aid comes from P5
* e.g. USA has been back and forth over Paris Agreement (has recently withdrawn) - emits largest amount of CO2 per capita, so sends a message to other countries that climate change isn't worth acting on
116
Why is NATO important to the USA?
* Provides them alliances to Europe, and military support from Europe
* Way for them to show their hard power and exert their influence
117
What are some recent NATO missions?
* Afghanistan 2001-2021
* Kosovo 1999-Present
* Libya 2011
118
How does increased resource usage by superpowers impact the environment?
* Landscape scarring
-Open cast mining (valuable minerals)
-Contaminated groundwater
-UK mines reopened as global price of Tungsten increased
* Air pollution/acid rain
-250 Chinese cities affected by acid rain in 2003 (cost $13billion)
-Chemical weathering of natural and building materials
* Oils spills
-e.g. Deepwater horizon (Gulf of Mexico) - 450mil litres oil released
-Remedial chemicals also damaged marine life
- Deforestation
-Brazils food production increased 30% 2002-2012
-Estimated that 15% of the Amazon has been cut down for agriculture
| Remedial chemicals = what treats the contaminated water
118
What are economic impacts of increased resource usage?
* Reduced crop yields due to changing seasons
* Economic cost of more intense environmental disasters
* Costs of climate change mitigation
* Increased trade through arctic shipping lanes
* Increased exploitation of resources in arctic areas
118
What are social impacts of climate change?
* Increased mortality from climate (extreme weather)
* Sea level rise - climate refugees
* Food shortages due to ecosystem change & reduction in crop yields
* Change in traditional lifestyles - change in ecosystems
* Changing social activities - warmer in N.hemisphere = more skin cancer
118
Why do superpowers all have high greenhouse gas emissions?
* GHG emissions relate directly to superpower status
* Emissions will change throughout a countries development from secondary to quaternary, but will remain high
-China - manufacturing
-USA/EU - transportation
-India - agriculture
119
What do net-zero targets indicate about different countries willingness to act on climate change?
* China have an "other target year" - aren't commiting to a time frame
* There is a variation in commitment around the world
-e.g. USA, EU have 2050 as target year
119
How is China willing to act on climate change?
* Investing more on clean energy than anyone else in the world - e.g. heavily into solar panels
* Makes up 70% of global production of electric vehicles
* Commitment to cut emissions 7-10% by 2035
* Manufactures 92% of the world's solar modules, and 82% of wind turbines
* Chinese clean energy firms are now some of the biggest in the world
* Clean energy indstries accounted for 40% of China's GDP growth - 2023
120
How is China not willing to act on climate change?
* 2018 emitted 8.4tons CO2 per capita (highest total CO2 emissions in the world)
* Attended COP 30 only by delegates
* Large manufacturing industry - e.g. solar panels are made by burning fossil fuels
* Over 1/2 of China's energy comes from burning fossil fuels
* China is responsible for ~10% of all human caused methane emissions
* Aiding in other countries development projects is energy intensive
* Meat consumption up 99% since 2000
* Growing middles class - 1bil by 2030
120
How is the USA not willing to act on climate change?
* 2018 emitted 17.74t CO2 per capita (most in world)
* Reducing CO2 is a cost for companies, making them resistant to change
* Some people (e.g. Trump) remain skeptical, influencing views of others
* Did not attend COP30
* High standard of living and population - requires tech, transport, energy, food
* Priority for energy security is to increase home grown sources - e.g. Trump saying drill, baby, drill
121
How is the USA willing to act on climate change?
* Decreasing manufacturing
* 2005-2015 wind power x3 in output, and solar energy x10
* Emissions may have gone down due to renewable resources (may rise again with current administration)
121
What is the middle class?
* Have a reasonable amount of disposable income
-enables people to buy consumer goods, pay for healthcare, and pay for childrens education
122
What is the problem with the middle class?
* The growth of the middle class consumption in emerging nations affects the availability of resources, as well as having environmental implications
* More disposable income means:
-Changes to diet - eat more, more meat, and more processed foods
-More piped water - increased use of domestic water (e.g. dishwashers), industry, agriculture
-Use more energy (transport, holidays, electrical appliances)
-Increased demand for high-tech products using REM, and becomes more intergrated with daily life
-Oil use increases with transport, and more energy and manufactured goods consumption
| REM=rare earth minerals
122
Why are rare earth minerals important and examples?
* Crucial for high tech applications e.g. electronics, renewable energy
* They are hard to mine, costly and supplies are limited
-Ytrium - Lasers, energy efficient bulbs
-Europium - LED lights
123
Why does the US emit the most CO2 per capita?
* Higher standards of living
* Lots of tranpsort
* e.g. China has a very large population, so although lots of CO2 from manufacturing, is "offset" by pop size
124
Why is China's CO2 emissions likely to grow?
* Very fast growing middle class
* Middle class will be about 1bil by 2030
124
What is a sphere of influence?
* The region over which a group or institution has power and influence, which is seperate from whoever is traditionally in control
-e.g. the US has a very wide military sphere of influence, as across all countries military presence is evident
125
How can tensions arise?
* Tensions can arise over the acquisition and exploitation of physical resources, as well as intellectual property rights, and control over territory
126
What are some sources of conflict?
* Politics
-Interference, ideology
* Natural resources
-Water, oil, fishing
* Access to trade/transport
-Shipping
* Territory
-Cultural/historical, proximity, strategic
* International property rights
-Technology, counterfeiting
* Economic
-Control, competition
| IPR= international property rights
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Why are resources so important?
* Superpowers are fuelled by resources, as they are needed to get and maintain power
-access to resources needs to be guaranteed, and can cause tensions
* Superpowers are often in the strongest position to control these things,
-so conflicts can escalate when there are tensions between superpowers
126
Why are some resources contested?
* Land border between 2 countries is in dispute
* Ownership of a landmass is in dispute
* The extent of a nations Exclusive economic zone is in dispute or claimed by another nation
127
What is UNCLOS?
* The UN convention on the law of the sea
* Adopted in 1982
* Comrehensive regime of law and order in the world's oceans establishing rules governing all uses of the ocean and its resources
* A country can control the seabed and its resources within 200 nautical miles of its coastline (EEZ)
| EEZ=exclusive economic zone
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Who is the arctic contested by and why/how?
* Russia
-over 1/2 of the arctic coastline is russian territory - about half of the arctic population live here (2 million)
* Canada
* Denmark (control over greenland)
* US (Alaska, and trying to claim control over Greenland)
* Norway
* China (have no real claims - interested for their belt and road initiative)
| Both russia and canada have arctic forces to protect their interests
129
Why is the arctic highly sought after?
* Estimated 1/4 of the world's undiscovered oil and natural gas may be here (100billion barrels of oil, 30% undiscovered gas, 13% undiscovered oil)
* Climate change means exploration and exploitation here are now possible, as sea ice is melting (used to be too thick for drilling)
* Rich in REM e.g. gold and diamond (especially in greenland)
* Could be an important trade route
130
Why is it so difficicult for countries to gain control over the arctic?
* North pole is agreed to be common heritage for all mankind
-protected from exploration and exploitation for sustainability
* Arctic region is beyond EEZ boundaries
131
What other claims does the USA have ovet the arctic?
* USA continental shelf
-Under the law of the sea treaty, USA could claim territory half the size of Alaska
* Beaufort sea
-Claimed by both the USA and Canada
132
What other claims does Russia and Denmark have over the Arctic?
* Lomonosov ridge
-Both Russia and Denmark (greenland) claim sovereignity over the undersea land mass - extends from Russia to greenland, and may contain 70billion barrels of oil deposits
133
What are some recent Arctic military developments?
* 2002
-Canada began annual military exercise in the Arctic
* 2007
-Russian submarine planted a flag on sea bed at North pole and restarted long-range bomber patrols
* 2009
-Denmark published plans for Arctic military command
* 2012
-Chinese icebreaker first to navigate the northern sea route
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What is an IPR?
| IPR=intellectual property right
* Legal protections for the creations of mind, granting owners rights over this for a period of time
-prevents unauthorized use
-allows creators to benefit financially from their innovation
-creations e.g. inventions, literary works, designs, brands
-Types of IPR: patents (inventions), copyrights, trademarks, design rights
134
Why are IPR's so important?
| IPR=intellectual property right
* It is estimated that international trade in counterfeit goods is worth over $500billion (3% of total world trade)
134
Who are fake goods a problem for and why?
* Takes away profits from TNC's, and therefore governments tax
-e.g. the USA owned brands/patents on 24% of siezed products
* Reduces employment oppurtunities
* Creates profits for organized crime
* Health and safety risk e.g. pharma
135
Where do most fake goods come from and why?
* Majority of fake goods originate from China, Hong Kong and Turkey
-80% from China - originals are made here so easy to copy
-Poor protection of IPR and lack of policing in China
136
What are the problems and benefits of IPR's for developing countries?
* Benefits
-Encourages offshoring/outsourcing
-Increases demand for lower price products by keeping prices high
* Problems
-Prevents countries from competing on an equal basis (less wealth generated)
-High cost of tech/pharma
136
What are the problems and benefits of IPR's for developed countries?
* Benefit
-Protects competitive advantage achieved by investing in technology
-More protection for offshoring (cheaper)
-More profit/tax from higher value goods
* Problem
-Keeps prices of goods high e.g. pharma
136
What are the problems and benefits of IPR's for emerging countries?
* Benefits
-Encourages offshoring/outsourcing
-Incentives to develop own IPR nd reduce interdependence
* Problems
-Prevents countries from competing on an equal basis (less wealth generated)
-High cost of tech/pharma
136
What is neo-colonialism?
* The indirect actions by which developed countries exercise a degree of control over less developed countries
* Can be through conditions attached to aid, loans, cultural influence, military or economic
137
Why did Britain invest in its colonies, is this similar to anything happening at the moment?
* Reliable source of raw materials to fuel rapid economic development
* Establish growing market for manufactured goods
-Also why china is investing in Africa
137
How have IPR's created tensions?
| IPR=intellectual property right
* Many USA companies manufacture in China, and complain IPR is not protected - could affect future deals
* Chinese business legislation required some companies to share technology IP before doing business in China
* Intergovernmental negotiations on trade deals have been compromised by lax IPR protection
138
Why is China investing so heavily into Africa?
* Part of the belt and road initiative (building roads, ports and railways)
-To build trade routes for themselves
-To increase their sphere of influence
139
What is the result of China's investment into Africa?
* 20% of debt in African nations is owed to China
* $132bil dollars loaned from China to Africa
* Every African country has cut ties with Taiwan (apart from Eswatini)
* China is now Africa's largest trading partner - buying 1/3 of its oil from the continent
* In 1980, trade between them totalled apround $1billion - in 2015 it totalled over $160billion
-2025 trade between China and Africa was worth $348billion
140
What are the advantages of Chinese investment into Africa?
* Construction of critical infrastructure that many African countries can't afford
-supports African development
* Cheaper loans with 'fewer strings attached'
* Trading partner for raw materials
* Supply of cheaper technology and goods
* Economic development through job creation (taking over as low wage manufacturing base)
140
What are the disadvantages of Chinese investment into Africa?
* Debt trap diplomacy
* 'Public resources' used as collateral
* Dependence on China
* Environmental damage - exporting polluting industries to Africa
* Reliance on commodities exports (low value, variable price)
* Debt
-75% of Zambia's $8.7bil debt and 77$ of Djiboutis debt is to China
141
Does China have a neo-colonial or developmental relationship with China?
* Neo-colonial
-Aid from china tied to FDI (produces temporary jobs)
-Most countries won't be able to pay their debt back to China
-Cheap chinese imports undercut local producers, and force them out of business
-Oil spills in Sudan and Angola (from chinese funded oil wells)
-Metal ore extraction in DRC means widespread forest loss and river pollution
-Unfair terms of trade
-Brain drain of skilled workers
* Developmental
-Africa beneffiting from Chinese investment, and becoming more developed (e.g. new transport)
-Multiplier effect (FDI)
-Increasing trade routes, and trade with Africa
142
How is investment in Africa affecting China's superpower status?
* Economic
-Source of raw materials, and market for products (fuelling growth)
* Military
-China expanding Djibouti naval base
-Contributions to UN peacekeeping forces in countries it has economic investment
* Political
-Support for China in IGOs (Africa is biggest bloc of votes in UN)
-Debt repayments (potential to take control of key infrastructure)
* Strategic
-One belt, one road strategy
142
Why is the Middle East an area of interest?
* Contains 60% of proven oil reserves
142
Who are the USA's allies in the Middle East?
* Supporter of Israe/Saudi Arabia/Qatar/UAE
* Anti-Iran - better relationship with Iraq
* Anti-terrorist groups (al-Qaeda)
-Has oil/gas interests
143
Why is the south china sea so highly contested?
* May be large natural resource reserves - e.g. REM
-Estimated 11billion barrels of oil, 190trillion feet3 of natural gas
* 10% of the world's fisheries are here
* >$3tril of global trade is made thorugh these waters
144
What claims does China have over the islands in the south china sea?
* Nine dash line - a historical claim to the south chian sea, as it first appeared in 1947 on maps
-used on official maps to claim sovereignity over roughly 90% of the sea
* China is building islands in the sea
-e.g. 2014 - fiery cross reef, which is a military base with over 200 troops
-e.g. 2015 - port and military base construction begins on mischief reef
144
What other countries have claims over the south china sea?
* Spratly islands
-China, Vietnam, Malaysia, Phillipines, Taiwan, Brunei
* Paracel islands
-China, Taiwan, Vietnam
145
What areas are contested by Russia and why?
* Georgia, but mainly Ukraine - e.g. Crimea, Donbas, Eastern Ukraine
* Ukraine is an ex-soviet state - still feel it should be part of Russia
* Russia views Ukraine's attempts to join NATO as security threats
145
How has Russia dealt with the contestion?
* 2014 - illegal annexation of Crimea (occupied by Russia)
* 2021 - destabilisation of the Donbas (russian backed forces established seperatist republics)
* 2022-now - Russia launched a multifront assault to sieze major territory
* Donbas is occupied, and southern regions are partially occupied
146
What has the contestion over russians western border led to?
* The open conflict in crimea, eastern ukraine, and georgia has led to the forced displacement of tens of thousands of people, asa well as hundreds of deaths
147
Which countries in the Middle Eastare allied with Russia?
* Military bases in Syria, and support the syrian government
* Allied with Iran (Iran isn't allied with USA, and neither is Russia)
* Complex relationship with Afghanistan (formerly invaded, which generated the Tliban, but now have a sort of alliance)
147
What countries in the Middle East are allied with the UK?
* Involvement through NATO alliances in the gulf war - Iraq, Libya
* Historical ties, due to former colonies in the middle east
148
Which countries in the Middle East are allied with China?
* Allied with Iran (also allied with Russia, and not with the USA)
* Needs relationships for developiong the belt and road initiative - also needs oil for industry
149
What are the political causes of tensions in the Middle East?
* Newly established systems of governance not yet providing stable forms of democracy - this impacts oil trade
* Arab springs - protests over economic decline, corruption and democratic rights
* Conflict over the new Iraqi government in 2005 (after constitution for modern Iraq established) to highlight weaknesses in new gov, and undermine authority
150
What are the economic causes of tensions in the Middle East?
* 60% of the worlds oil is in the Middle East - investment from the US and the UK has helped the region to develop its own tech and expand industry
* Trade sanctions on some countries can cause oil prices to drop as other countries compete to supply the country that applied the sanction
* Oil prices rise during conflict in countries with reserves
151
What are the cultural causes of tensions in the Middle East?
* Most Muslim countries are hostile to the Jewish state of Israel (USA ally)
* Religious differences between sunni and shia muslims (Iran has highest pop of shia, can cause tensions with majority sunni countries)
* Division of territory between ethnic groups
-e.g. Kurds in Turkey, Israel/Palestine
* ISIS - extreme interpretation of sunni
* Refugees from war puts strains on other nearby countries
152
What is the main challenge for superpowers?
* Pressure to maintain the superpower status
-Expensive (economic problems, e.g. cost to maintain and deliver military power)
-e.g. global military spending in 2025 rose significantly (driven by geopolitical tensions), but the US remained the highest
152
What are the environmental causes of tensions in the Middle East?
* Hot and dry climate, so the Middle East relies heavily on oil for trade
* Water scarcity in the area - contension over water
* Pollution from conflict
153
What will the future of superpowers look like?
* Unipolar
-US could maintain, or China could become the new superpower
-Contenders: USA, China, EU, Russia, India
* Bipolar
-USA and China
* Multipolar
-USA, EU, China, India
-There is a changing world order and this may be realistic due to a 'global village'
154
How are social problems are affecting superpower countries?
* Health spending makes up 17% of the USA's annual GDP
-74% of Americans are overweight (30% obese), adding to costs
* Unemployment has led to social costs
-Social cohesion lost in industrial regions (people often had to migrate to other places in the country for work)
* EU is aging fast - by 2025, 20% of EU citizens will be over 65
-EU's workforce will drop 14% by 2030 (burden those in work to fund pensions and healthcare)
155
How is unemployment affecting superpowers?
* EU unemployment was close to 7.4% in 2020 - cost to taxpayers, and underused economic capacity
* Jobs in manufacturing are decreasing in developed countries
-e.g. in 1980, 240,000 people worked in UK coalmines, by mid 1990s, number was 13,000
-e.g. rustbelt in USA was badly affected
* Youth unemployment was 15% in the EU in 2020 - long term youth unemployment risks a 'lost generation' and political disatisfaction
156
How does national and household debt affect superpowers?
* Debt amounted to 10.6tril euros in 2020
* Debt in the UK amounted to £2.3tril in 2020 - about 90% of annual GDP (drag on economic growth)
* National debt in the USA was $25.5tril in 2020 - the USDs status as global currency of choice makes it less vulnerable to economic shocks
* Global financial crisis 2007-2008 - arose from morgtgages being lent to those who likely couldn't afford it
-bailing out banks increased government debt levels (UK gov debt more than doubled between 2007-2013)
156
How does economic restructuring affect superpowers?
* Shifted employment from the primary and secondary sectors into tertiary and quaternary
-manufacturing particularly affected
-e.g. in the UK this began to change when the tories were elected in 1979
* EU relies on imported oil and gas, and is not very energy secure
* Water insecurity is an increasing problem
156
How important are nuclear weapons in maintaining military power?
* Important for creating fear
* Possession can be seen as a deterrent to conflct escalation
* Cost of upgrading nuclear weapons is high - £100-259bil by 2075 for UK to upgrade nuclears
156
How important is the navy in maintaining military power?
* Importance may expand with the expansion of airpower (aircraft carriers)
* In 1982, the UK spent 4% of GDP on defence, since been halved - is it better to have less high tech ships, than more low cost ships
157
How important is Intelligence services for maintaining military power?
* Increasing in importance
* Government budgets have become increasingly directed towards anti-terrorism work (after 9/11 and Paris attacks)
* Despite tech, it is labour intensive and costly
* Successes in Europe, uncovering terrorist plots before they could strike
158
How important is air power for maintaining military power?
* Costs tend to be second highest after nuclears
* Research and development is needed to upgrade and maintain aircrafts - means costs can rise rapidly
* Number of combat aircrafts
-USA - 3318
-Russia - 1900
-China - 1500
-India - 1080
159
How important is Space exploration for maintaining military power?
* Decreased in importance after the cold war - mainly for exploration rather than military purpose
* Only some countries are commited to this - USA, EU, China, Russia, Canada, Japan
* 2022 budgets were:
-USA - $62Billion
-Russia - $3.4billion
-China - $11.9billion
160
Why does the USA might want to increase spending on military?
* As China expands global reach with navy and aircrafts, USA and allies may have to divert resources from socioeconomic growth to military
