1
Q
what structures are part of the upper respiratory system?
A
paranasal sinuses
nasal conchae
nose
nasal cavity
nasopharaynx
2
Q
what structures are part of the lower respiratory system?
A
larynx
trachea
bronchi
lungs
bronchioles
3
Q
what is the respiratory system divided into?
A
conducting division
respiratory division
4
Q
what is the conducting division?
A
provides passageway for air to move
warms, humidifies and cleanses air
5
Q
what is the respiratory zone?
A
provides site of gas exchange between lungs and blood
starts at respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli
6
Q
what is the mouth?
A
primarily an organ of the digestive system
role in respiration: acts in parallel with nose as conduit for air entry and exit
especially important when breathing under exertion
7
Q
what are the features of the external norse anatomy?
A
apex: tip of nose
nares (nostrils): openings to the nose; contain hair and filter large particles
Ala nasi: cartilaginous flap on lateral side of each nostril
dorsum nasi: length of nose
bridge: connects root to rest of nose
root: region located between the eyebrows
8
Q
what are the features of the internal structures of the nose?
A
nasal septum: divides nasal cavity into left and right sides
superior, middle and inferior conchae: three pairs of c shaped bones extending laterally from nasal septum
meatuses: passageways surrounding the conchae for air to flow
9
Q
the nasal cavity is connected to how many pairs of sinuses?
A
4
10
Q
what are sinuses?
A
are air filled spaces
serve to warm and humidify incoming air
contribute to resonance of voices
11
Q
what does the super nasal meatus do?
A
receives drainages from posteior ethmoid sinuses
12
Q
what does the middle nasal meatus do?
A
receives drainages from anteior and middle ethmoidal sinuses, fontal sinus, maxillary sinus
13
Q
what does the inferior nasal meatus do?
A
receives drainage from nasolacrimal duct
14
Q
what does the sphenoidal sinus drain into?
A
drains into sphene-ethmoidal recess (superior to superior conchae)
15
Q
what are the features of the pharynx?
A
nasopharynx
oropharynx
laryngophraynx
connects the nose, mouth and throat
digestive and respiratory systems share the pharynx
16
Q
what is the nasopharynx?
A
conduit for air only
adenoids lie in posterior wall
17
Q
what is the oropharynx?
A
conduit for digestion and respiration
tonsils found at the border
18
Q
what is the laryngopharynx?
A
conduit for both air ad food
opens into larynx and esposphagus
19
Q
what does the larynx consist of?
A
3 unpaired cartilages: epiglottis, thyroid, cricoid
3 paired cartilages: arytenoids, corniculates, cuneiforms
all binded by intrinsic ligaments
20
Q
what is the epiglottis?
A
super to glottis- during swallowing larynx elevates and epiglottis folds back over the glottis to prevent liquid and food from entering the respiration passageways (trachea)
21
Q
what is the thyroid?
A
largest forms anteior and lateral walls, incomplete posteior-anteior surface contains laryngeal prominence (Adams apple)
22
Q
what is the cricoid?
A
ring shaped- attachment of laryngeal muscles and ligaments
23
Q
what are the ligaments and mebranes of the larynx?
A
intrinsic and extrinsic ligaments, vestibular and vocal ligaments, vestibular(false) folds (inelastic), vocal fold(elastic), intrinsic and extrinsic muscles
24
Q
what are intrinsic ligaments?
A
bind all 9 cartilages together
25
what are extrinsic ligaments?
attach thyroid cartilage to the hyoid bone and cricoid cartilage to trachea
26
what do the vestibular and vocal ligaments do?
extend between thyroid cartilage and arytenoids
27
what do the vestibular (false) folds (inelastic) do?
project into glottis and cover vestibular and vocal ligaments
prevent objects from entering the glottis and protect delicate vocal folds
28
what do vocal folds (elastic) do?
help produce sound
29
what does the intrinsic and extrinsic muscles do?
intrinsic function to regulate tension in vocal folds and open and close the glottis
extrinsic connect larynx to other structures and move it during swallowing and speaking
30
what is the trachea?
the trachea extends from the larynx to its division into left and right bronchi
contains hyaline cartilage between fibrous tissue ligaments
31
what is the carina?
part of trachea
a ridge of cartilage that senses solid or liquid substances and triggers violent coughing to expel them
32
what is the mucociliary escalator?
ciliated cells on the interior form it
33
where is the trachea located?
located anteior to esophagus
extends from larynx to t5
16-20 incomplete horizontal rings of hyaline cartilage
ends by terminal bronchioles, commonly referred to as the bronchial tree
34
what does the trachea give rise to when it branches at T5?
right and left main bronchi
35
where do the main bronchus travel to?
travel to a through the hilum
36
what does the main bronchus branch into?
lobar (secondary)
right has 3 lobar, left has 2 lobar
37
what are the 2 lobar on the left?
inferior and superior
38
the right lobar bronchus subdivided into?
inferior, middle and superior lobar bronchi
39
what is the order of the respiratory system?
left and right primary bronchus
secondary (lobar) bronchus
tertiary bronchus(segmental)
bronchioles
terminal bronchioles
conducting division
40
each lung is surrounded by a what membrane with how many layers?
pleural membrane with 2 layers
41
what are the 2 layers of the pleural membrane?
visceral pleura: tightly covers each lung
parietal pleura: lines inner wall of thoracic cavity
42
what is the pleural cavity?
small space between the layers containing pleural fluid (secreted by mesotheiall cells)- fluid lubricates and provides a barrier
43
what are the components of the left lung?
one oblique fissure
2 lobes: superior and inferior
has a lingula
cardiac impression
cardiac notch
contents of hilum are arranged as: pulmonary artery is superior to bronchus while pulmonary veins are located inferiorly
44
what are the components of the right lung?
two fissures: oblique and horizontal
3 lobes: superior, middle and inferior
esophageal impression
contents of hilum are arranged as: pulmonary artery and bronchus are on the same level while pulmonary veins are located inferiorly
45
what are the primary muscles of inhalation?
external intercostals
diaphragm
46
what are the inhalation accessory muscles?
sternocleidomastoid
scalenes
pectoralis minor
serratus anteior
47
what are the respiratory centres brainstem control?
3 pairs of respiratory nuclei
pons (2 modifying centres)
medulla oblongata (1 respiratory rythmicity center)
48
what is the hypophyseal portal system- base of brain?
the hypothalamus- links the nervous and endocrine system together
controls the production of hormones in the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland by secreting specific regualtrory hormones
49
what do the capillary networks do in the hypophyseal portal system?
before leaving the hypothalamus, capillary networks unite to form a series of larger vessels around the infundibulum to reach the anteior lobe
50
what happens in the anteior lobe?
these blood vessels form a second capillary network that branches among the endocrine cells
51
what is the thyroid gland?
hypothalamus releases TRH (thyrotropin releasing hormone)
52
what does the TRH do?
regulates the thyroid and stimulates the release of thyroid- stimulating hormone and prolactin from the anterior pituitary
53
what do parathyroid glands do?
monitor the concentration of calcium ions in blood
54
what happens when the calcium concentration falls below normal?
the parathyroid cells secrete PTH (parathyroid hormone)
55
what does the PTH do?
increases blood levels of ca2 + by stimulating osteoblasts to secrete a growth factor that binds to osteoclasts
reduces urinary excretion of calcium ions
PTH levels remain elevated until blood ca2 + concentrations return to normal
56
what does this growth factor result in?
an increase in osteoclast activity, causing blood calcium concentration to increase
57
what are tonsils?
large nodules in wall of pharynx
58
what is the overall purpose of the digestive system?
the organs of the digestive system mechanically and chemically process food
large molecules of food must be broken down into small molecules that can be absorbed by the epithelium lining the digestive tract for transfer to the circulating blood
59
what is the peritoneum?
a serous membrane with 2 parts:
parietal peritoneum
visceral pertitoneum
60
what is the parietal peritoneum?
that covers the abdominal wall
61
what is the visceral pertitoneum?
which covers the abdominal viscera
62
what is the potential space between the two layers?
the peritoneal cavity
63
the organs within the abdominal cavity and are often described in relation to?
the peritoneal membranes
64
what are intrapertioneal organs?
are completely wrapped in peritoneum
65
what are retroperitoneal organs?
are located posteriorly to the peritoneum, and only their anteior surfaces are covered with peritoneum. they do not have a mesentery
66
what are secondarily retroperitoneal organs?
are digestive tract organs that are intraperitoneal organs in the early embryonic state but during the embryonic development become retroperitoneal
67
what is the mesentery?
double layer of peritoneum
suspend organs from abdominal wall
68
what are peritoneal folds?
suspend most of the digestive organs to each other and to abdominal cavity
69
what are the 5 main peritoneal folds?
greater omentum
lesser omentum
falciform ligament
mesentery proper
mesocolon
70
what is the greater omentum?
attaches the greater curvature of stomach to the transverse colon
71
what is the lesser omentum?
attaches stomach and duodenum to liver
72
what is the falciform ligament?
attaches liver to anterior abdominal wall
73
what is the mesentery proper?
binds the jejunum and ileum of the small intenstine to the posteior abdominal wall
74
what is the mesocolon?
bind the transverse colon, sigmoid colon of the large intestine and appendix (mesh appendix) to the posterior abdominal wall
75
what is the oral cavity?
refers to the mouth
includes:
the frenulum (bridle)
the uvula
tongue
tooth
teeth
76
what is the frenulum (bridle)?
a small fold of tissue found in different parts of the body
77
what is the uvula?
part of the soft palate; it helps prevent food and liquid from going up the nose when swallowing
78
what is the tongue?
a muscular structure located on the floor of the oral cavity
it is the primary taste organ and plays a key role in the initial phases of swallowing
79
the tongue is secured to the floor of the oral cavity with a?
lingual frenulum
80
what is tongue-tie (ankyloglossia)?
a problem with the tongue that is present from birth . it occurs when the frenulum on the bottom of the tongue is too short and tight
81
what are the 4 dental tissue that the tooth are composed of?
enamel
dentin
cementum
pulp-non-calcified tissue
82
what is the pulp-non-calcified tissue?
centre of the tooth that contains nerves, blood vessels and connective tissue
83
which of the 4 dental tissues are hard tissues?
enamel
dentin
cementum
84
what are the four types of teeth that humans have?
incisors, canines, premolars, molars
85
what do human teeth do?
function to mechanically break down items of food by cutting, tear, crushing and grind them in preparation for swallowing and digesting
86
whats the pharynx?
the common passageway for food, liquids, and air
extends from skull base to vertebrae C6
87
what are the 3 regions the pharynx?
nasopharynx- functions only in respiration
oropharynx- functions in digestion and respiration
laryngopharynx- functions in digestion and respiration
88
what connects the oral cavity to stomach?
swallowing
89
what is swallowing?
a complex process that is initiated voluntarily but continues involuntarily
3 phases
90
what are the 3 phases of swallowing?
buccal
pharyngeal
esophageal
91
the pharyngeal muscles cooperate with muscles of the oral cavity and esophagus to?
initiate and continue the swallowing process
92
what are the 4 major histological layers of the digestive system?
mucosa
submuscosa
muscular layer
serous layer or serosa
93
what is peristalsis?
rhythmic waves of muscle contraction
movement of the bolus along the esophagus- waves of muscular contractions that move the bolus along the esophagus
94
what is the peristaltic wave determined by?
longitudinal and circular muscles
95
what is step 1 of peristalsis?
contraction of circular muscles behind bolus
96
what is step 2 of peristalsis?
contraction of longitudinal muscles ahead of bolus
97
what is step 3 of peristalsis?
contraction in circular muscle layer forces bolus forward
98
what is the esophagus?
hollow muscular transports foods and liquids to the stomach
99
where does the esophagus lie?
posterior to the trachea slightly left of midline
100
how does the esophagus enter the peritoneal cavity?
through an opening in diaphragm; esophageal hiatus
101
where does the esophagus begin and end?
begins at the level of the cricoid cartilage anteior to C6 and ends anteior to T7
102
what are the functions of the stomach?
store food for a bit
breaks down food by crushing it (mechanically digest)
breaks down food more using acids and enzymes (chemically digest)
103
what does the mixing of the stomach make?
a tick, acidic liquid (semi-fluid mixture) called chyme (Kim)
104
what is the stomach?
an intraperitoneal organ located between the espohagus and the duodenum
it has a J shape, and features a lesser and greater curvature
105
what are the anteior and posterior surfaces of the stomach rounded with?
smoothly rounded with a peritoneal covering
106
what are rugae?
gastic folds that appear in the empty stomach, increasing its surface area for better function
107
what is the small intestine responsible for?
90% of digestion, plus a major site of absorption
108
what are the functions of the small intestine?
mix liver and pancreatic secretions with cyme
continue digesting carbohydrates, proteins, and initiate fat digestion
absorb nutrients- 90% of water and nutrients that pass through- circular folds, vlivi and microvilli increase surface area
move chyme towards large intestine
produce regualtory hormones
produce immune cells in large numbers
109
what are the 3 anatomical subdivisions of the small intestine?
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
110
what is the duodenum?
the shortest segment of the small intestine. approximately 25cm (10 inch) long
C shaped, surrounding the pancreas
111
what is the proximal 2.5 cm(1 inch) portion of the duodenum?
intraperitoneal, while the rest is secondarily retroperitoneal
112
what is the mixing bowl/
receives chyme from stomach (pyloric sphincter) and digestive enzymes from pancreas, liver
113
what is the jejunum?
at this junction the small intestine re enters the peritoneal cavity, becoming intraperitoneal and supported by a sheet of mesentery. about 2.5 m (8ft) long
114
is there a sharp anatomical distinction between the jejunum and ileum?
no
115
what are features of the jejunum?
thicker walled and larger diameter than ileum
mesenteric fat is scant
simple vascular arcades- fewer branches than ileum
bulk of chemical digestion and nutrient absorption here
116
what is the ileum?
the third and last segment of the small intestine
it is intraperitoneal and is the longest segment of si
averages 3.5 m (12ft) in length and is located in the hypogastric region.
117
where does the ileum end?
ileocecal value
this spinchter controls the flow of material from the ileum into the cecum of the large intestine
118
mesenteric fat is?
abundant
thicker than jejunum
multiple vascular arcades
119
what is the large intestine?
the last portion of the digestive system
thinner wall than small intestine, no villi
120
what are the functions of the large intestine?
absorption of water, ions and vitamins from remaining chyme converting to feces- formation
secretion of protective mucous and movement of remaining non-diested food (huustral churning and peristalsis)
site of bacterial colonization for specific nutrient digestion
site of immune cell production
bacterial converts proteins into amino acids, breakdown of amino acids, breakdown of amino acids, producing vitamins
121
how is the large intestine shaped?
horseshoe shaped
122
where does the the large intestine begin and end?
begins at the junction with the ileum and ends at the anus
123
what does the large intestine form?
an almost complete frame around the small intestine
124
what is the large intestine often called?
the large bowel or colon
125
what is the length of the large intestine?
about 1.5 m
126
what is the cecum?
the first part of the large intestine and is located in the right lower abdomen, near the appendix
is located intraperitoneally, but lacks a mesentery
127
what is the ascending colon?
begins at the super border of the cecum
it turns to the left at the hepatic flexure- this bend marks the beginning of the transverse
secondarily retroperitoneal
128
what is the transverse colon?
curves anteriorly from the right colic flexure
crosses the abdomen from right to left
the initial segment is intrapetrioneal
129
what is part of the anatomy of the uirnary system?
kidneys- paired
ureters- paired
urinary bladder- unpaired
urethra- unpaired
129
where is the kidney located?
posterior abdomen
located lateral to the vertebral column between T12- L3
129
what type of organ is the kidney?
retroperitoneal
130
___ connective tissue layers encapsulate the kidneys
3
renal fascia
perinephric/perirenal fat capsule
renal capsule
130
what is the kidney protected by?
floating ribs
131
which kidney is higher?
left- because of liver
131
what is the renal fascia layer?
most superficial
dense connective tissue
surrounds both kidneys and adrenal glands
132
what is the perinephric/perirenal fat capsule layer?
layer of adipose tissue
133
what is the renal capsule layer?
directly covers the outer surface of the kidney
134
renal arteries enter at the?
hilum
135
renal veins and ureters exit the?
hilum
136
what are the internal kidney anatomy features?
renal cortex
renal medulla
renal columns
major and minor calyces
137
what is the renal cortex?
outer regions- granular, reddish-brown
138
what is the renal medulla?
inner regions(composed of renal pyramids with striped appearance)
139
what are the renal columns?
separate renal pyramids
140
what are major and minor calyces?
collect urine from renal lobes (a pyramid surrounding cortical tissue)
141
what is part of the sectional anatomy of the kidney?
renal cortex
renal medulla
renal sinus
142
how many pyramids does the medulla consist of together?
6-7
143
what is the arterial supply of the kidney?
renal artery-> segmental arteries-> interlobar arteries-> arcuate arteries-> cortical radiate arteries-> afferent arterioles-> glomerulus
144
blood supply in then kidney is what?
collateral (segmental)
145
what is the venous drainage of the kidneys?
venules -> interlobular veins -> arcuate veins -> interlobar veins -> renal vein
146
left renal artery behind the?
left renal vein
147
gonadal and suprarenal vein drain into?
left renal vein
148
right renal vein drains?
right in IVC
149
right gonadal and right suprarenal veins drain?
right in IVC
150
left renal vein drains?
right in IVC
151
left gonadal and left suprarenal veins drain in?
left renal vein
152
what do the ureters do?
carry uriine out of the kidneys to the bladder
capable of peristalsis
connect to the bladder at an angle that prevents back flow of urine
further bladder filling also compresses the distal end of the ureter, further preventing back flow (bladder expands to fill)
153
ureters exit the kidney at the?
hilum
154
ureters enter which side of the bladder at what?
posterior/inferior side of the bladder at the ureteral openings in the trigone area
155
what is the trigone sensitive to?
expansion (stretch); when gets full, signals need to empty bladder
156
what is the trigone formed by?
the 2 ureteric orifces and the internal urethral orifice
157
what do the peritoneal folds help maintain?
the position of the bladder
158
what is detrusor muscle?
smooth muscle layer of the bladder- involuntary (brain and SC control mechanism of voiding- can be trained)
bladder expands to fill and contracts to empty- need compliance
can be very sensitive to bladder irritants and msuclaur tension
159
what is the internal urethral sphincter?
exit of bladder/enrtance of urethra; smooth muscle (involuntary)- structurally different in female
160
where is the base of the urinary bladder in males?
between the rectum and the symphysis pubis
161
how long is the male urethra?
18-20 cm in length
162
what are the parts of the male urethra?
pre-prostatic urethra
prostatic urethra
membranous urethra
spongy urethra
163
what is the prostatic urethra?
passes through the prostate gland
164
what is the membranous urethra?
short segment that goes through the urogenital diaphragm (site of "external" urethral sphincter)
165
what is the spongy urethra?
(penile urethra): extends through the penis to the external urethral orifice
166
when does the internal urethral sphincter fail?
during retrograde ejaculation
167
where is the base of the bladder in the female bladder?
inferior to the uterus, anterior to the vagina
168
how long is a women's urethra?
shorter (3-5cm)
169
what is the external urethral sphincter?
is near the anteior wall of the vagina (more external in female)
internal- structurally different than in male
170
where are internal genitalia located?
in the pelvic cavity
171
where are external genitalia located?
in the perineum
172
what is part of the internal geniitalia in females?
uterus, cervix, ovaries, and uterine tubes
173
what is part of the internal gentilaia in males?
prostate gland, ductus deferens, seminal vesicles
174
what is part of the external genitalia in females?
clitrois, labia majora, and labia minora (vulva)
175
what is part of the external genitalia in males?
penis and scrotum
176
what are the homologous organs in males and females?
ovary, testis
- produces sex hormones and gametes
clitoris, penis
- composed of erectile tissue, involved in sexual arousal
labia majora, scrotum
-protect reproductive structures
177
what are the structures supporting ovary?
ovarian ligament (contained within broad ligament)
suspensory ligament (contains gonadal vessels- attach ovary to sidewall of pelvis0
mesovarium (part of broad ligament)
178
what are the parts of the uterine tube?
fimbrae
infunibulum
ampula
isthmus
179
what are the structures supporting the uterus?
broad ligament
round ligament
180
how long is the round ligament?
10-12 cm long
181
what does the round ligament do?
connects uterus to pelvis and holds it into place
attaches to side of uterus at the cornu then crosses the pelivis through the deep inguinal ring through the inguinal canal and then entered the labia majora and fibres insert into the mons pubis
182
how many layers of pelvic floor muscles are there?
3 layers of muscles that stretch from the pubic bone to the coccyx
183
what do the 3 layers of muscle in the pelvic floor do?
superficial- sexual, external and anal sphincter
middle- urinary, spinchcter control, supportive/trampoline
deep- largest, support, pressure control
184
Winter Term 2026
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