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Define motivation. Compare drive, incentive, and evolutionary approaches to understanding motivation.
Motivation: goal-directed behavior.
Drive theory: internal tension pushes to reduce biological needs.
Incentive theory: external rewards pull behavior.
Evolutionary theory: behaviors are adaptations shaped by natural selection.
Distinguish biological vs social motives with examples.
Biological motives: hunger, thirst, sleep, sex.
Social motives: achievement, affiliation, autonomy, dominance.
Evidence on biological factors regulating hunger.
Hypothalamus involvement, glucose levels, hormones (insulin, ghrelin, leptin), stomach signals.
Evidence on environmental factors in hunger.
Palatability, availability, learned habits, stress, social cues, culture.
Define obesity & factors causing it (Weiten & McCann, 2019).
Obesity: excessive body fat (BMI ≥ 30).
Factors: genetic predisposition, excessive eating, inadequate activity, sleep loss, stress, food environment.
Four psychological phases of human sexual response.
Excitement, plateau, orgasm, resolution.
Evolutionary perspective of sexual behaviour + parental investment theory.
Sexual behaviours maximize reproductive success.
Parental investment theory: sex with higher investment is choosier; lower-investment sex competes.
Research by Buss on gender differences in mating preferences.
Men prefer youth/physical attractiveness; women prefer resources/status. Found cross-culturally.
Factors influencing sexual desire & sexual orientation.
Biological factors, hormones, environment, learned associations, personality, culture.
Evidence on determinants of sexual orientation.
Genetic influences, prenatal hormones, brain structure differences, limited environmental effect.
Need for achievement & behaviour.
High nAch: seek moderately challenging tasks; low nAch: avoid risk, prefer easy or very difficult tasks.
Situational factors & fear of failure in achievement strivings.
Probability of success, incentive value, fear of failure decreases persistence and risk-taking.
Cognitive component of emotion.
Subjective feelings, appraisals, interpretation of events.
Physiological component of emotion.
Autonomic arousal, limbic system (amygdala), hormonal changes.
Behavioural component of emotion.
Nonverbal expressions, body language, facial expressions.
Facial feedback hypothesis.
Facial expressions influence emotional experience (smiling can increase happiness).
Cross‑cultural similarities/variations in emotion.
Similar expressions for basic emotions; differences in display rules and interpretation.
Compare James‑Lange vs Cannon‑Bard; Schachter two‑factor.
James‑Lange: arousal → emotion.
Cannon‑Bard: arousal + emotion simultaneous.
Schachter: emotion = arousal + cognitive interpretation.
Evolutionary theories of emotion.
Emotions are innate, adaptive, promote survival (Darwin-based).
Five fallacies in controversial arguments.
Undefined terms, circular reasoning, weak analogies, false dichotomies, slipper slope/oversimplification.
