Week 10 - Problem Solving

Question 1

define thinking

Answer 1

higher-order cognition built on other aspects of cognition involvein creating/usnig knowledge rather than extractin –> doing somehting with products of perception, memory + language

Question 2

what are we doing to mental representations when we think and in service of what (Holyoak + Morrison)

Answer 2

transforming, goal

Question 3

why is thinking hard? 3 reasons

Answer 3

• built on other, fallible aspects of cognition
• evolutionarily recent, frontal lobes differentially activated + pushed to limits
• we know we make mistakes and we don’t like it

Question 4

does uscinski say there’s more conspiracy now than ever?

Answer 4

no

Question 5

what bias helps us deal with uncertainty? what does it involve

Answer 5

confirmation bias - seek out info confirming what we believe, relieving feelings of uncertainty + balloooning beliefs in conspiracy

Question 6

define heuristic

““Is it going to rain today?” uncertain → “is the sky dark or not?” certainty” <- what does that mean

Answer 6

rules of thumb that are often effective but not guaranteed.

replaces a hard question with an easier one

Question 7

do heuristics lead to predictable errors when we use these shortcutrs

Answer 7

yes

Question 8

define similarity heuristic. example?

Answer 8

things that look similar will have similar properties –> homeopathic medicine proposes that diseases are cured by the same substances that cause them, but diluted

Question 9

define agency bias

Answer 9

we attribute intention and motives to others’ behaviour

Question 10

define proportionality bias

Answer 10

big things may have big causes, important event = important reason for ti

Question 11

how do analogies help us understand? how do they help conspiracies?

Answer 11

reusing old information in new ways, finding similarities between different situations

if there was once a conspiracy (watergate) there must always be a conspiracy

Question 12

according to Holyoak + Morrison, thinking acts on ____ and how we ___ situations can determine how we deal with them

Answer 12

representation, represent

Question 13

when pennington + Hastie studied mock juries, they found that for the prosecution if events are presented chronologically and coherently rather than the defence how the witness actually saw them, would juries convict more

Answer 13

yes

Question 14

define problem solving

Answer 14

transforming a situation to achieve our goals

Question 15

Caledonian crows can do what? what does this suggest? or do some people think it’s different

Answer 15

problem solve, find paths to get meat out of a tube by bending wire .

they make mental representations, some people think they already use twigs like this in the wild

Question 16

define the gestalt approach. what kind of problem solving does it relate to? (tutorial)

Answer 16

emphasising the importance of changing perspective to solve problems/restructuring understanding.

insight

Question 17

Kohler 1925 used chimps, what did they do to get the banana hanging above? what does this imply

Answer 17

• stacked boxes
• didn’t just do things randomly, but had a mental representation of the goal

Question 18

the buddhist monk problem is easy if…

Answer 18

you think about it in the right way and represent it mentally differently - flip + swap

Question 19

the crows: are females better? how many /17 trials did a female crow get the meat

Answer 19

yes, 10

Question 20

wertheimer 1945 is associated w what two things

Answer 20

insight problem solving, functional fixity

Question 21

define functional fixity

Answer 21

inability to see objects beyond their typical use, blocking insight

Question 22

define a mental set

Answer 22

tendency to approach problems in a certain way based on past experiences, which can limit creativity

Question 23

describe what Duncker’s 1945 candle problem show, specifically the difference between when the box was empty or full of pins

Answer 23

86% solve when it’s empty, 41% when it’s full
* shows that people are impeded by functional fixedness when the box is in use as holding pins

Question 24

apollo 13 example, brief

Answer 24

working out how to filter out carbon dioxide, ground control used everything they knew was in the module then sent instructions back –> overcoming funcitonal fixity saves lives

Question 25

define set effects. which experiment showed this? how does it relate to conspiracy

Answer 25

if you find a solution to a problem that works, you'll keep doing it that way even if there's an 'easier' way Luchins 1942, water jug way people think they have a certain solution, don't try thinking about problems in a different way

Question 26

what's the example about planets relating to set effects Le Verrier conspiracy theorists?

Answer 26

Le Verrier noticed wobbles in Uranus' atmosphere, predicted the location of a new planet (Neptune) Then he tried to discover a new planet the same way in Mercury's orbit, failed over and over again conspiracy: immune to evidence that a method/solution isn't working

Question 27

why was gestalt criticised?

Answer 27

* seemed descriptive * didn't account for the actual process behind making new representations

Question 28

Newell + Simon 1970 proposed problem solving as a process of what? can search be both physical and mental

Answer 28

searching through a problem space of possibilities yes search can be both physical and mental

Question 29

problem solving: define a state

Answer 29

specification/representation of a situation

Question 30

problem solving: define operators

Answer 30

actions that change one state into another e.g. in chess making a move, putting an opponent in a state where they're chackmated

Question 31

problem solving: define solution

Answer 31

sequence of operators tha trasnform initial state into goalstate

Question 32

heuristic strategies used in search are slow T/F

Answer 32

f

Question 33

outline generate-test approach. do you know if you're getting closer to the solutiuon

Answer 33

random generation of a solution, then testing it. no.

Question 34

advantage/disadvantages to generate-test

Answer 34

adv: requires no knowledge dis: generation difficult, large search space, slow

Question 35

outline difference reduction (hill climbing)

Answer 35

taking small steps to reduce the difference between the current state and goal state as efficiently as possible

Question 36

adv/disav to difference reduction (hill-climbing)

Answer 36

adv: steps can be small, don't have to know much to generate steps except what moves you in direction of goal dis: requires *some* knowledge, may not be possible/desirable to get closer at EVERY step

Question 37

Does using an "algorithm" guarantee you the solution?

Answer 37

yes

Question 38

when bruce tries to do his laundry in an earthquake, will difference reduction help him?

Answer 38

no

Question 39

outline means-end analysis

Answer 39

breaking a problem down into smaller sub-problems and systematically reducing the difference between the current state and the goal state, not necessarily in a way that gets you constantly closer (linearly) to the goal

Question 40

what are the steps of means-ends analysis

Answer 40

compare, operator, subgoal, repeat 1. compare current and goal state, identifying the differences 2. select an operator to reduce the largest difference 3. if the operator can't be applied, set the subgoal of creating preconditions for its application (might even take you further away from your goal initially) 4. return to (1.) until goal is reached

Question 41

is it easy to show people systematically applying a full means-end analysis ?

Answer 41

no

Question 42

egan + greeno 1964 showed that problem difficulty correlates with what

Answer 42

how many subgoals you need

Question 43

Catrambone found better performance in math problem solving when...

Answer 43

instructed to set subgoals

Question 44

what does the 9-ball problem tell us about criterion of satisfactory progress and means-ends analysis?

Answer 44

most people don't really think about the 2nd weighing --> Means-ends assumes people fully plan out everything, but does support criterion of satisfatory planning which is to reduce the distance between current and goal state

Question 45

what are the 2 heuristics used in problem solving shown in the 9 ball problem

Answer 45

* maximisation of progress towards goal (putting as many balls on the scale as possible) * minimisation of search space (equal no's of balls on each side)

Question 46

adv/disadv of problem space theory

Answer 46

adv: solving many problems can be seen as search of space disadv: underplays role of knowledge in problem solving

Question 47

outline the role of knowledge in problem solving (3)

Answer 47

* if you know the solution there's no problem * knowledge gives us initial representations * knowledge can provide us w wrong representations (when all u have is a hammer everything looks like a nail)

Question 48

what is problem space theory in problem solving

Answer 48

navigating through a mental space of possible states, using strategies to move from a starting point to a goal

Question 49

define transfer * positive transfer? * negative transfer?

Answer 49

application of old knowledge to a new problem * positive: use prior knowledge to help * negative: functional fixedness, mental set

Question 50

analogies can facilitate...

Answer 50

transfer

Question 51

when people are given an analogy about a fortress and separating troops, do they do better solving the x-ray problem? what about when you give them a hint to use the analogy?

Answer 51

yes! and double yes, they do better

Question 52

is there a testable theory of problem solving? why/why not?

Answer 52

NO * search is more description than testable * different processes likely underlie different phenomena termed 'problem solving' so there might not be one single theory

Question 53

well-defined problems examples

Answer 53

clear initial state, goal, rules * puzzle, maths

Question 54

ill-defined problems

Answer 54

ambiguous, unclear elements * writing an essay, designing a product

Question 55

knowledge-rich problems

Answer 55

domain-specific knowledge requirements * diagnosing medical conditoin

Question 56

knowledge-lean problems

Answer 56

can be solved using general cognitive strategies * logic puzzles

Question 57

define the criterion of satisfactory progress. what does it explain?

Answer 57

principle guiding how people choose operators: only chosen if they appear to reduce the difference between current and goal states explains why people abandond ineffective strategies