Week 12

Question 1

Four functions frequently ascribed to sleep

Answer 1

1. Energy conservation
2. Niche adaptation
3. Body restoration
4. Memory consolidation

Question 2

Energy conservation

Answer 2

Reduced body temp, slower respiration, slower
heart rate = reduced metabolic activity

YET, sleep reduces metabolic rate by only 5-10

Question 3

Niche adaptation

Answer 3

• Sleep enforces adaptation to a particular
  ecological niche

Question 3

Body restoration

Answer 3

• Sleep helps rebuild/restore body materials and
  functions
• Prolonged deprivation = weakened immune
  system

Question 4

modafinil

Answer 4

medication for narcolepsy and cataplexy

Question 4

Memory consolidation

Answer 4

• SWS helps in the consolidation of declarative
  memories (i.e., memory of factual information)
• and involvement of REM sleep in consolidation of
  procedural memories (i.e., skill- or rule-based
  learning

Question 4

Two common ones in young children

Answer 4

Night terrors and sleep enuresis (i.e., bed-wetting)
* Both occur during SWS
* Can be treated with drugs to decrease Stage 3-4 SWS
sleep or with an antidiuretic

Question 5

Somnambulism –

Answer 5

sleep-walking; more common among
children but can persist into adulthood

Question 5

Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS) –

Answer 5

may be due to abnormalities in
brainstem circuits that regulate respiration; esp. those involving serotonin

Solution? Leave infant sleeping on back, not stomach

Question 6

We will talk about emotions as based on 4 different dimensions -

Answer 6

1. Physiological – autonomic, endocrine responses
2. Actions – e.g., laughing; attacking/ fleeing in
   response to threat
3. Motivation – approach or avoidance behaviors
4. Feelings – subjective experience

Question 7

Cannon (1911) was first to observe that emotional
excitement was associated with the following changes

Answer 7

-increase of adrenaline (epinephrine) in bloodstream
-redirection of blood flow from the viscera (internal
organs) to skeletal muscles and brain
-increased blood pressure and glucose levels
-less movement of the muscles in the digestive organs

Question 8

Cannon coined the term….

Answer 8

“fight-or-flight” or sympathetic
response

Question 8

Sham rage

Answer 8

Animals had their cerebral cortices removed and showed undirected rage responses

resulted in a 5-fold increase in blood glucose levels and increased secretions of the adrenal gland (i.e., release of adrenaline)

Question 9

Other investigators verified that the
___________played an
important role in the expression of
emotion

Answer 9

posterior hypothalamus

Question 9

Hess found that stimulating the _________ in
cats produced hissing and spitting, piloerection, pupillary
dilation, ears moving back but they all ceased when the
stimulation ended

Answer 9

posterior hypothalamus

Question 10

James Papez (1937) outlined a circuit to account for emotion

Answer 10

involved new regions not previously
considered as being important for emotion: Hippocampus,
cingulate gyrus, anterior thalamic nuclei

Question 11

Papez’s circuit also distinguished….

Answer 11

emotional expression
(hypothalamus) from subjective emotional experience (cerebral cortex)

Question 12

Limbic System

Question 13

information is processed through the
amygdala, and then to the ____________
for output to structures controlling different
aspects of fear responses

Answer 13

central amygdala

Question 13

Defensive behaviors

Answer 13

(periaqueductal gray, PAG; ”

Question 13

Sensory information related to the threat is
then conveyed to the___________

Answer 13

lateral nucleus of the amygdala

Question 13

Olds and Milner (1954) had a landmark finding – brain self-stimulation

Answer 13

• rats will bar press to receive electrical stimulation when
  electrodes are implanted in the septal region

Question 14

The amygdala is widely activated under a variety of emotional contexts

Answer 14

– Threatening faces
– Frightening situations
– Viewing visually disturbing scenes
– Viewing people of other races/ nationalities (i.e., that
they are hostile toward or fear)

Question 14

Autonomic activation

Answer 14

(through Lat. Hyp.)

Question 14

Stress hormone responses

Answer 14

(through the anteroventral bed nucleus of the stria terminalis and paraventricular hypothalamus; avBST and PVH

Question 15

The common feature to all these manipulations is that the ascending pathway,________________, is activated

Answer 15

the medial forebrain bundle

Question 16

A single type of emotion increases activity in various parts of the brain but....

Answer 16

not in one single region...

Question 16

This pathway contains _______neurons, arising from the______ that innervate the _____- (recall mesolimbic system

Answer 16

dopamine , ventral tegmental area (VTA), nucleus accumbens

Question 17

VTA DA neurons show reward prediction error

Answer 17

– they fire APs more when a reward is larger than expected, and decreased activity when no or less than predicted reward occurs

Question 18

You should know the major players in human emotions

Answer 18

1) prefrontal regions (i.e., orbitofrontal, cingulate gyrus) 2) amygdala 3) insular cortex

Question 19

The _________ is strongly activated during exposure to stimuli perceived as “disgusting”

Answer 19

insular cortex

Question 20

general adaptation syndrome has 3 phases:

Answer 20

1) Alarm reaction – initial response to stress 2) Adaptation stage – includes activation of appropriate response systems and re-establishment of homeostatic balance 3) Exhaustion stage – occurs when stress is prolonged or severe; characterized by increased susceptibility to disease

Question 20

The sympathetic nervous system -

Answer 20

“fight or flight” response that prepares the body for brief emergency responses

Question 21

Hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis –

Answer 21

produces endocrine changes to enable adaptation; complements sympathetic response

Question 22

HPA axis activation is initiated when afferent information enters into the brain, and is ultimately conveyed to the......

Answer 22

paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH)

Question 23

Paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH) –

Answer 23

Final common pathway in the brain for activation of HPA axis

Question 24

Corticotropin releasing factor (CRF)

Answer 24

is a peptide synthesized and secreted by neurons in the PVH

Question 25

Cells in the anterior pituitary synthesize and secrete___________ into the bloodstream

Answer 25

adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Question 26

ACTH stimulates the release of _______ from the cortex of the __________. ________ is a glucocorticoid hormone that broadly affects the body and brain

Answer 26

cortisol, adrenal gland, cortisol

Question 27

Physiological stress -

Answer 27

brain stem projects to PVH; mostly from nucleus of solitary tract and ventrolateral medulla -e.g., blood loss, low oxygen, infection

Question 28

Psychological stress -

Answer 28

- pathways are more sensory; relayed to limbic regions such as hippocampus and prefrontal cortex, and then onto the PVH via indirect pathways Primary relays are anteroventral bed nuclei of the stria terminalis (avBST), dorsomedial and posterior hypothalamus -e.g., predator exposure, other psychosocial (e.g., public speaking)

Question 29

Cortisol does 4 things in response to threats from the environment:

Answer 29

1 - Increases blood sugar by activating glucose metabolism 2 - Catabolizes/ breaks down fat and proteins (also for energy use) 3 - Inhibits immune function, esp. inflammation 4 - Promotes cognitive adjustments via direct actions in the brain

Question 30

“glucocorticoid-mediated negative feedback” of the HPA axis

Answer 30

cortisol “feeds back” onto the brain to shut off HPA axis response