Category
A set of objects that can be treated as equivalent in some way
Concepts
The mental representation we form of categories
Similar to schema. Allows us to recognize something knew if it has similarities to a category
Defining Familiar Categories
- Necessary feature for membership
- Jointly sufficient. any object with the necessary features fits into the category
Hard to do because there are so many outliers in the world that fit into a familiar category
Borderline Items
Members and nonmembers of categories form a continuum depending of individual judgement
- Something considered a member may. be viewed as a nonmember at a different time
Category Prototype
Most typical category member
- items less similar to the prototype become less typical
Influences of Typicality on Cognition
- Typical items are often category members
- Speed of categorization faster for typical items
- Typical members are learned before atypical
- Learning a category is easier if typical examples are provided
- In language comprehension, references to typical members are understood more easily
- In language productions, people tend to say typical items before atypical one
Source of Typicality
- Objects have feature that are frequent in the category
- Do not have features frequent in. other categories
Category Hierarchies
Concrete categories are nested inside larger, abstract categories
Subordinate (niche and specific) < Basic < Superordinate (Overarching)
Basic Level of Categorization
The neutral, preferred category for a given object, at an intermediate level of specificity.
- The word most commonly used to describe an object
- People’s knowledge and interest in the category effects what is considered basic to them
Basic Level Preference
basic-level categories are more differentiated: The category members are similar to one another, but they are different from members of other categories
- Experts can differ which categories are the most differentiated, because they have more knowledge of similarities and differences.
Prototype Theory
suggests that people have a summary representation of the category, a mental description that is meant to apply to the category as a whole
- Descriptions of featured are weighted from most relevant to least
Exemplar Theory
Concept of category is remembered by examples of category members that have been seen
- When you see an object, you (unconsciously) compare it to the exemplars in your memory, and judge how similar it is to exemplars in different categories
Knowledge Approach to Concepts
Concepts are meant to tell us about real things in the world.
We try to connect the concepts to knowledge we already have about the world.
- Similar features are learned better than unrelated ones
Psychological Essentialism
The belief that members of a category have an unseen property that causes them to be in the category and to have the properties associated with it.
- Artifacts don’t have an essence
Signs of Essentialism
(a) objects are believed to be either in or out of the category, with no in-between
(b) resistance to change of category membership or of properties connected to the essence
(c) for living things, the essence is passed on to progeny
Piaget’s Stage Theory
Theory that development occurs through a sequence of discontinuous stages: the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and formal operational stages.
Sociocultural Theories
Theory founded in large part by Lev Vygotsky that emphasizes how other people and the attitudes, values, and beliefs of the surrounding culture influence children’s development.
Information Processing Theories
examine the mental processes that produce thinking at any one time and the transition processes that lead to growth in that thinking
Qualitative Changes
Large, fundamental change, as when a caterpillar changes into a butterfly; stage theories such as Piaget’s posit that each stage reflects qualitative change relative to previous stages.
- more sudden and discontinuous
Sensorimotor Stage
Period within Piagetian theory from birth to age 2 years, during which children come to represent the enduring reality of objects.
Pre-Operational Reasoning Stage
Period within Piagetian theory from age 2 to 7 years, in which children can represent objects through drawing and language but cannot solve logical reasoning problems, such as the conservation problems.
Concrete Operational Reasoning Stage
Piagetian stage between ages 7 and 12 when children can think logically about concrete situations but not engage in systematic scientific reasoning.
Formal Operational Reasoning
Piagetian stage starting at age 12 years and continuing for the rest of life, in which adolescents may gain the reasoning powers of educated adults.
- does not occur without exposure to formal education in scientific reasoning
Object Permanence Task
The Piagetian task in which infants below about 9 months of age fail to search for an object that is removed from their sight and, if not allowed to search immediately for the object, act as if they do not know that it continues to exist.
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Week 1: Introduction to Psychology36
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Week 2: Research Methods22
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Week 3: Genetics and Evolution37
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Week 4: Learning45
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Week 5: Neurons19
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Week 6 Neurobiology32
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Week 7 Introduction to Sensation and Perception30
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Week 9: Consciousness and Sleep24
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Week 10: Attention and Memory19
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Week 12: Language, Language Use, and Development30
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Week 13: Cognitive Development42
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Week 14: Social and Emotional Development31
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Week 15: Adolescence, Emerging Adulthood, and Aging36
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Week 16: Intelligence and Decision Making32
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Week 17: Motivation and Emotion31
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Week 18: Interacting with Tough Content, Self Care and Wellness21
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Week 19: Psychopathology 124
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Week 20: Psychopathology 22
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Week 21: Psychopathology, Psychopathy, and Therapeutic Orientations0
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Week 22: Personalilty0
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Week 23: Social Thinking and People in Groups0
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Week 24: Relationships and Self-Identity0
