1
Q
Define superpower
A
- a nation which has the ability to project its influence around the world.
- This global influence means they have a big say in decision making and they are often a global force for change.
2
Q
What are the four pillars of superpower status?
A
- economic
- military
- political and ideology
- cultural
3
Q
Describe economic superpower status
A
- A large economy enables a nation to control trade.
- They can also use their money to invest in a strong military force and exploit natural resources.
- They may also own the debt of other nations thereby having power over them.
4
Q
Describe military superpower status
A
- A nation can use their military to threaten or invade other countries (hard power)
- or to achieve geo-political goals (such as UN Peacekeeping Missions).
5
Q
Describe political and ideological superpower status
A
- The ability to influence other countries in a way which suits their desires or match their political systems.
- Ideology is closely linked with politics, as many states may force their ideology through policies
6
Q
Describe cultural superpower status
A
- Projecting a nation’s cultural values on others can change the way other populations think and align their ideology with the superpower’s culture.
- Culture is often spread via social media, films, music, food, art etc.
- The westernisation of culture is an important aspect of power.
7
Q
How can physical resources be used for superpower status?
A
- Physical resources like oil and gas (if a nation has the means to exploit them) can help a nation develop their economy and therefore their economic power through trade.
- If these countries are dependent on the superpower for their natural resources then the superpower will have power over them e.g. Russia providing gas to Europe.
8
Q
How can human resources be used for superpower status?
A
- A large human workforce if utilised properly can help to develop a nation’s economy.
- For example, the emerging superpowers China and India both have large populations which are being used in manufacturing to develop their economies.
9
Q
Describe the power spectrum
A
The Power Spectrum describes the different approaches a country may have in influencing their power or culture on another.
10
Q
Describe hard power
A
Using military and direct political intervention to change or influence the behaviour of other countries.
● Military action
● Threat of trade restrictions (embargos)
● Use of economic sanctions to damage a nation’s economy
● Owning the debt of other countries
11
Q
Describe soft power
A
Attracting national governments and individuals to their country through:
● Attractive culture & lifestyle
● Sought-after political advice
● Foreign policies that encourage migration
● Trade alliances
● Foreign direct investment in business, infrastructure or facilities
12
Q
Describe Mackinder’s Geo-Strategic Location Theory (3)
A
- The British geographer Mackinder classified a region of Eurasia as the ‘Heartland’.
- This area stretches from Russia to China and from the Arctic to the Himalayas.
- He argued that the Heartland was a geo-strategic location because whoever controlled it would control large amount of physical and human resources.
13
Q
How has Mackinder’s theory influenced geopolitics?
A
The theory was influential because it contributed to policies of containment:
- After WWI, attempts were made to limit Germany’s expansion into this strategic area.
- After WWII, NATO allies tried to contain the Soviets from expanding into south and west Europe
14
Q
Arguments against Mackinder’s theory (3)
A
- as technology has advanced and made transportation easier the shrinking world has reduced the locational importance of the Heartland.
- Resources can easily be transported around the world, advances in military technology means armies can have more global influence without needing to colonise other nations.
- This has allowed nations such as America, which is on the exterior of the Heartland, to take over centre stage as a global Superpower.
15
Q
Describe Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory
A
- The World Systems Theory identifies two different economic areas within the world - the core and the periphery.
- Core regions are economic powerhouses and therefore control most aspects of global trade such as trade agreements and trading currency.
- The core regions trade with those in the periphery who often provide labour and materials for the core nations
16
Q
Describe trade between core and periphery countries (4)
A
- The periphery - often at their expense - must mine, farm, or extract natural resources for the core.
- The periphery sells their primary resources to the core. They also provide skilled workers through international outward migration.
- The core manufactures, which adds value to the goods.
- The core provides consumption goods to periphery countries, often at their own profit.
17
Q
How does Wallerstein’s World Systems Theory explain inequality in development?
A
- In the past relationships between the core and periphery were purely exploitative (colonialism) and the periphery was forced to provide their natural resources through means of hard power such as military force or occupation.
- For example, the British Empire’s exploitation of India for natural resources. In more recent times this relationship centres around trade agreements (soft power) which often benefit the core regions more than they benefit the periphery.
18
Q
Describe Rostow’s modernisation theory
A
Rostow believed that countries pass through five stages as they grow economically and become developed
19
Q
Describe stage 1 of Rostow’s modernisation theory
A
- Traditional Society - The country’s economy is based predominantly on primary industry - agriculture, small-scale mining, foraging and fishing.
- There is minimal technology or scientific knowledge which protects the country’s traditional culture, religion and values.
20
Q
Describe stage 2 of Rostow’s modernisation theory
A
- Pre-conditions for Take Off - There is a demand for raw materials and trade by external countries.
- A rise in construction of infrastructure will lead to an increase in businesses and FDI.
- Gradually, the industry centres around manufacturing rather than agriculture as individual families can earn more money from a reliable job (unlike agriculture which is seasonal and can be affected by extreme weather) .
21
Q
Describe stage 3 of Rostow’s modernisation theory
A
- Take Off - Here there is rapid Industrialisation, creating a large surge of employment opportunities and productivity.
- Take-off can also be a period of environmental degradation, as the nation lacks laws to protect its natural surroundings and people from exploitation
22
Q
Describe stage 4 of Rostow’s modernisation theory
A
- This is often fuelled by relaxed laws and regulations protecting the natural son accelerates.
- Drive to Maturity - Over a period of time, the growing economy will encourage new industries and investment, creating further jobs, improving services through increased tax.
- This is a positive feedback mechanism of gradually improving living conditions.
23
Q
Describe stage 5 of Rostow’s modernisation theory
A
- Developed countries, in Rostow’s opinion, are countries who are capitalistic and consumers hold the most valuable opinion.
- Often goods are catered towards these markets, as families have disposable income to spend.
24
Q
Criticisms of Rostow’s modernisation theory (4)
A
- based largely on American and European development (mass consumption and capitalism to create profit) and therefore ignores the stages of growth other nations who do not fit this mould
- some nations may have large reserves of natural resources which allow them to skip some stages of development (e.g. Saudi Arabia)
- doesn’t describe a nation that is declining (e.g. post-cold war USSR, corruption in Zimbabwe)
- only considers a country in isolation from the world, where the development is the sole responsibility of the country itself and nor affected by international politics or competition.
25
Define a unipolar world
- One country dominates
- e.g. the USA currently or the British Empire during colonial times
26
Define a bipolar world
- Where there are two main superpowers with opposing ideas and ideologies
- e.g. the USA and USSR during the Cold War
27
Define a multi-polar world
Where there are several powers and emerging powers competing for power and global influence
28
Describe the scale of the British Empire
- Britain ruled a quarter of the world’s land and a third of the world’s population during its peak.
- The Royal Navy dominated the world’s oceans and was double the size of Germany’s (the next largest).
- The British Empire’s expansion was based on hard power; it invaded other countries and colonised them to maintain its control.
- During this time, the world was considered uni-polar.
29
Positive impacts of colonial power (3)
▪ Railway lines were built throughout the country and were used to transport goods and the army quickly between places.
▪ The English language spread throughout the Empire, which has allowed Commonwealth countries to become outsourcing services and participate in business.
▪ Education for all colonial states was improved - schools were set up & curriculum established. This has led to increased international migration to fill skills shortages in other countries after WWII.
30
Negative impacts of colonial power (3)
▪ The majority of crops grown in colonial states were bought by the British at very low prices and then sold off by Britain for large amounts. This means that farmers and primary manufacturers were left with little profit to invest in their own futures.
▪ Many colonial states did not have their own governments, which caused severe protests for independence and unstable countries when made independant.
▪ Discriminating policies were established to segregate the British migrants from natives. These policies have remained in some countries until recent years.
31
Why did many empires collapse in the 20th century? (3)
▪ After the war, many colonial powers were bankrupt as they had to spend a lot during the war and so they couldn’t afford to control and maintain their colonies.
▪ After the wars, colonial powers focused mainly on rebuilding their home countries and so they focused less on the colonies.
▪ Anti-colonial movements gained popularity, and increasing demand for independence forced colonial armies out
32
Describe neo-colonialism
- Neo-colonialism was first used to describe the continued dependence of former colonies on other countries after their independence.
- However, it has now become used to describe the exploitative relationship between more powerful developed countries who are using their relationship with less developed countries for their own benefit.
33
Define Frank's dependency model
the cycle of neo-colonialism, where the neo-colony becomes dependent on the neo-colonial power controlling it.
34
Why have the IMF and World Bank been accused of being neo-colonial?
- They provide loans to developing nations, but with high rates of repayment and conditions if the developing nation is unable to repay.
- Therefore, developing nations become ‘trapped’ in a cycle of debt and have to open their economies to private companies (governments lose assets and income, making them even less likely to repay their debts).
35
causes of the cold war
- The Cold War lasted from 1945 to 1990, and was a time of geopolitical tension between the USA and USSR.
- Both were dominant powers and were vying for more global influence and power.
- The USA is a democratic society which was based on a capitalist economy. Whereas the USSR was under communist rule and had a centrally-owned economy.
36
Key events in the Cold War (7)
● The USSR installed communist governments in Eastern Europe. These countries were of strategic importance to the USSR as they provided a ‘shield’ in case the West attacked Russia.
● The border between Eastern and Western Europe became known as The Iron Curtain and was heavily defended by opposing parties.
● The countries supporting the USSR formed the Warsaw Pact
● The USA created NATO, which its allies joined to cooperate military powers.
● After 1945, the USA provided billions of dollars’ worth of aid to many European nations to rebuild.
● The USA also invested significant amount into Japan, Singapore and The Philippines in order to protect these countries from being influenced by communism.
● The Space Race became a competition of knowledge and economic capacity between the USA and USSR.
37
Describe proxy wars in the Cold War (5)
- The term ‘cold’ is used to describe the war as there was no large-scale direct fighting between the two sides.
- Instead the two sides supported opposing wars which are described as proxy wars.
- Vietnam War – The USA fought directly against groups which were supported by China and the USSR.
- Korean War – Korea was divided into the South which was supported by the US and the North which was supported by China and the USSR.
- After the collapse of the USSR, the USA became the global dominating force again.
38
Which countries are the BRICS?
Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa
39
Which countries are in the G20?
Includes the EU and countries like Turkey, Indonesia, South Korea, Saudi, Mexico
40
Describe the relative economic importance of the BRICS and G20
- The G20 economies account for 85% of the world’s GDP and 85% of the world’s trade, hence are more influential.
- However, with changing industries and the adoption of new political approaches & ideology, BRICS may overtake G20 and become most influential.
41
Define an emerging country
An emerging country is a state that has a developing economy or government and has large projected growth.
42
Brazil - economic characteristics (4)
- Brazil is important regionally for South America as it produces more than 50% of S. America’s GDP
- It has large reserves of natural resources
- It has energy and food security. It is self-sufficient in producing and sourcing its own food and energy resources.
- The economy repeatedly faces boom and bust phases, that severely hamper Brazil’s development
43
Brazil - political characteristics (3)
- Brazil has been very politically unstable in recent years.
- Corruption is rife throughout the country.
- Since 2015, leadership has drastically changed. The President was impeached in 2015, leading to uncertainty. In 2018, the far-right Bolsonaro was elected.
44
Brazil - military characteristics
Its military is insignificant; only playing a small regional role and no international involvement.
45
Brazil - demographic characteristics (3)
- The population of 210 million is the largest in South America.
- The population is very young.
- Fertility rates have decreased significantly so the population may decline in the future.
46
Brazil - cultural characteristics (2)
- Brazil has a global reputation as a footballing nation and has won many world cups.
- It hosted the Olympics + Paralympics in 2016 and the FIFA World Cup in 2014
47
Brazil - environmental characteristics (2)
- Deforestation is a major issue with large swathes of the Amazon being cut down for agricultural and commercial purposes.
- Pollution is another major problem from mining and oil spills.
48
Russia - economic characteristics (3)
- It is the 9th largest economy in the world and has large reserves of oil and gas. However It is overly dependent on oil and gas for revenue, which is not sustainable income for the future.
- The country has been hit with EU sanctions that have weakened the Ruble and the economy.
- It is the most unequal emerging nation, where the richest 1% control 71% of total wealth.
49
Russia - political characteristics (2)
- It is a permanent member of the UN Security Council.
- Relations with the EU are strained and its annexation of Crimea exacerbated this
50
Russia - military characteristics (3)
- It has nuclear weapons and a large military
- Russia has intervened in Syria with airstrikes which has damaged relations with other countries.
- The majority of Russia’s fleet and aircraft are ageing and unsuitable for modern times.
51
Russia - demographic characteristics (3)
- The population of 144 million is quite large, but largely spread across Russia’s vast lands, leading to isolation and lack of development of many regions.
- Russia’s population has been declining in recent years as birth rates are very low.
- The population is ageing which is impacting the economy.
52
Russia - cultural characteristics (2)
- Russia has little cultural influence.
- However, its growing influence in USA (Trump’s election), military assistance to Nigeria (to combat Boko Haram) and Syria (controversial air strikes) suggests that Russia’s global influence is expanding
53
Russia - environmental characteristics (2)
- One of the most ecologically stressed landscapes due to human degradation
- extraction of natural resources damages surroundings, salinization and overgrazing is causing soils to deteriorate, improper waste disposal.
54
China - economic characteristics (7)
- China is a major player in global investment, the Chinese have invested heavily in developing countries especially in Africa.
- A lot has been invested in modern infrastructure like high speed rail throughout the country.
- Due to its large population, GDP per capita is only 10% of USA’s.
- Many of its industries copies foreign ideas and so it isn’t very innovative.
- In 2009, only 2% of China’s adult population graduated from university.
- Rising wages in China have led to TNCs moving to cheaper countries like Bangladesh.
- Its ageing population combined with its one Child Policy may cause its economy to collapse entirely.
55
China - political characteristics (3)
- Unlike the USA, China doesn’t really get involved in global crises or aid towards other countries, limiting China’s international relations.
- China’s government is run by an authoritarian party.
- Has tense relationships with many SE Asian nations.
56
China - military characteristics (2)
- China’s People Liberation Army has the world’s largest army and has nuclear weapons.
- China’s army (PLA) is dated; despite its large numbers of soldiers the army is very poorly equipped
57
China - demographic characteristics (3)
- The population of 1.38 billion allows for a vast labour pool, allowing China’s economy to increase.
- By 2020, it is expected that 12% of the population will be over 65 which will require expensive support through healthcare and social care
- China has little inwards migration so they are unable to attract talent and skills from abroad that they may lack.
58
China - cultural characteristics (3)
- China’s influence is growing as they are investing in other countries (such as Africa).
- Some Cantonese food has been adopted in other countries.
- China has very little global influence on culture.
59
China - environmental characteristics (3)
- China is the world’s largest emitter of CO2, producing 33% of the world’s emissions.
- Rivers throughout China have been polluted with chemicals from factories.
- Large amounts of land across the world in places like the Amazon rainforest are being cut down in order to export goods to China where demand from consumers is rising rapidly
60
India - economic characteristics (5)
- Between 1997 and 2015, annual growth rates averaged 7% which is much higher than MDCs.
- Widespread use of English has been beneficial as it has attracted many TNCs.
- Infrastructure like energy and water supply as well as transport is poor, power cuts are frequent.
- The government has a lot of debt.
- Society is very unequal and more than 20% of people live in poverty.
61
India - political characteristics (3)
- India is the world’s largest democracy
- It is a member of the G20 and was a founding member of the UN.
- It has poor geopolitical relations with neighbours like China and Pakistan.
62
India - military characteristics (3)
- It has the 4th largest military in terms of personnel and weaponry
- It has nuclear weapons.
- India has come to month-long standoffs with neighbouring China to maintain its border.
63
India - demographic characteristics (3)
- The population is 1.27 billion (largest after China).
- The majority of Indians are young and so there is a large pool of labour available.
- However, there is much outward migration of India's youth, which may lead to a declining future population and brain drain of skilled workers.
64
India - cultural characteristics (2)
- Bollywood which is the world’s largest film industry outside of Hollywood, producing 1200 films annually
- Indian food is very common and important in many parts of the world.
65
India - environmental characteristics (3)
- India is one of the most biodiverse countries in the world with various plant and animal species.
- Pollution is a major problem as India is the world’s third largest emitter of CO2.
- India has some of the world’s largest and worst urban slums which have damaged the environment.
66
How might global superpower status change in the future? (4)
– Countries around the world could form their own alliances and another Cold War could occur.
– There could be strong economic and population growth in Asia but along with high demand from the West. This could lead severe shortages, high prices and conflict over resources.
– A new arms race could occur as China expands its naval and air power.
– If Asia were to become dominant, then the global economy would depend on the health of NICs in Asia rather than the West.
67
How much will global resource demand likely increase by?
worldwide demand for food could increase 35%, 40% for water and 50% for energy by 2030.
68
Describe the role of the World Bank and IMF
The World Bank and IMF provides loans to developing countries. These loans aim to help the country develop.
69
Criticisms of the World Bank and IMF (3)
- They have both been been criticised due to them providing funds for projects that have been unethical and have damaged the environment.
- they have given loans to countries who are incapable of paying back their loans. These countries, in an attempt to reduce their debt, have had to agree to open up their markets and privatise their companies
- The USA and EU have the highest proportion of voting rights within both these organisations, so their interests are closely tied with the IGOs, rather than the interests of the indebted countries.
70
Describe the role of the WTO
The WTO aims to ensure free global trade and opportunities are equal for all countries. The WTO generally aims to reduce protectionist measures.
71
Criticisms of the WTO
it has failed to stop developed nations from protecting its own industries. For example, the USA and EU which give subsidies to their farmers but this affected developing nations as farmers in developing nations have lost out as their produce becomes less competitive due to it being more expensive
72
Describe the WEF ( World Economic Forum)
- The WEF is a Swiss not-for-profit organisation which promotes public-private co-operation
- The organisation meets every year in Davos where there are thousands of politicians, delegates, economists etc.
73
Criticisms of the WEF
It costs $19,000 to attend, which make attendance for small businesses or under-represented countries limited
74
What are the two different types of TNCs?
● Publicly traded TNCs who are owned by various shareholders generally pension funds and banks
● State-owned TNCs which are owned by governments through 100% share or majority
75
Why are TNCs becoming more influential? (3)
- Economies of scale has allowed them to reduce their costs and out-compete their smaller competitors, gaining huge profits in the process.
- Their ability of to borrow money has allowed them to invest in new technology
- The move towards capitalism across the world has opened up more opportunities for them
76
Counter examples of Westernisation (2)
- Cultural dishes from Asia, such as curry and sushi, are quickly becoming more popular than American or European cuisine.
- Certain aspects of American culture like American football have not been successfully adopted across the globe.
77
Examples of intellectual property laws (3)
● Patents for technologies and systems
● Copyright for music, books and artworks
● Trademarks for designs like logos
78
Why do TNCs use intellectual property laws?
- Anyone who wants to use these innovations has to pay royalty fees to the inventor or designer.
- In the past, patents have only been available to Western TNCs, due to the high cost of application
79
UN security council - members
- 5 permanent members (USA, UK, France, China & Russia)
- 10 non-permanent rotating members which change every 2 years.
80
UN security council - functions (3)
▪ Sanctions can be applied to countries that are deemed to be a security risk (e.g. North Korea), harbouring terrorism, threatening or invading other states.
▪ Military force against another country can be authorised
▪ UN Peacekeeping Force can be authorised to reduce conflict and tensions or improve development and quality of life for locals
81
UN security council - criticisms
- Any of the permanent member states can veto a decision
- The USA, UK & France usually vote together whilst Russia and China generally vote together which leads to no progress within the council
82
International court of justice - members
The ICJ has 15 judges of which 5 are from the West with the remaining from other parts of the world.
83
International court of justice - functions (2)
- The court (based in the Hague, The Netherlands) settles disputes between different UN member states.
- It aims to achieve geopolitical stability and hold governments accountable for actions against the welfare and human rights of their people.
84
UN climate change conferences - functions
- the UN also aims to encourage the protection of the environment and the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions.
- The changing attitude of many state governments has been caused by several important conferences
85
Describe the Montreal Protocol
- Finalised in 1987.
- Aimed to stop the use of CFCs and Halons, both highly damaging to the ozone layer.
86
Describe the Kyoto Protocol
- Held in 1997.
- Aimed to generally reduce greenhouse gas emissions
87
Describe the Paris Agreement
- Held in 2015.
- Highest number of signatures/ states participating to date.
- However, key emitters such as the USA have withdrawn since.
88
Why might countries form alliances?
Governments may form alliances with other countries for a variety of reasons: to reduce conflict, co-operate efforts or combine intelligence, strengthen trade partnerships, improve and protect the natural environment.
89
Describe NATO
- NATO is a group of nations which was formed during the Cold War and consists of allies of the USA.
- Its main policy dictates that if one member gets attacked, other members will come and assist that country.
- Recent Russian military activity in Ukraine and Eastern Europe has brought NATO members together as they don’t want Russia to gain control of more land and influence more people. This has led to an escalation of tensions and NATO has sent in more troops.
90
Describe the ANZUS treaty
- This is a security agreement between Australia, New Zealand and the US.
- The aim of the treaty is to cooperate on military matters in the Pacific. The treaty has allowed the US to maintain a presence in the Pacific.
91
Describe the European Union
- The EU began with just six founding nations but has since increased to include 27 member states.
- The EU promotes free trade and movement of goods and people between member states.
- There is increasing tensions within different EU states from those who want greater integration and cooperation and those who want to leave (e.g. Brexit).
92
Describe ASEAN
- This consists of 10 South-East Asian nations.
- The organisation was formed to encourage greater cooperation between the different states and also increase economic growth in the region.
- This cooperation is important since there has been historic conflict between ASEAN States.
93
Describe NAFTA
- This consists of free trade between Mexico, Canada and the US.
- Many companies in Canada and the US have benefitted as they have relocated many of their manufacturing plants to Mexico due to lower labour costs which in turn have increased their profit margins.
- However, this has come at a cost to many Americans and Canadians as many have lost
their jobs, leading to a rise of extreme political opinions (protectionism)
94
Describe the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
- This organisation was established by the UN in 1988.
- Its aims are to stabilise greenhouse gas emissions and reduce the harm humans are doing to the environment.
- Its success can be argued, since many governments still pollute and are not held accountable by the many policies and protocols they may have signed.
95
Environmental impacts of high resource consumption (3)
- Urban air quality in emerging power cities is very dangerous due to poor vehicle engines.
- Imports and exports have increased so CO2 has increased through increased transport. This means goods have a larger carbon footprint.
- Deforestation has accelerated as people cut down trees in order to grow crops for food or biofuel.
96
Impacts of the rise of the middle-classes (4)
Pressure on existing resources, such as:
- food security (there will be more demand for volume and variety of food types)
- water security
- energy security (Oil demand is expected to rise by 30% by 2030)
- resource security (Demand for rare earth minerals increases leading to higher prices)
97
Issues arising from developed countries reducing emissions while developing countries' emissions increase (2)
- Developed countries have already gone through a period of industrialisation where they had high emissions, as developing nations are just entering this stage of development now then why shouldn’t they be allowed to do the same?
- The reason why developed countries emissions have decreased is because they have outsourced their manufacturing to less-developed countries who are effectively polluting on the developed countries behalf.
98
Examples of recent changes in attitudes to climate change (5)
▪ Since Donald Trump’s election, USA has pulled out of many environmental initiatives and programmes, which increased carbon emissions
▪ EU sees climate change as a 21st Century Problem and is working towards policies and programmes to reduce emissions such as wide-scale renewable energy production.
▪ In 2014, China agreed to work towards an emissions peak in 2030 but only committed to these targets in 2016. China is also the world’s largest investor in renewable energy. If China was to change its energy habits, it could be a drastically large shift in emissions.
▪ Russia supported the 2015 Paris Climate Change agreement, it agreed to reduce carbon emissions by 30% from 1990 levels. This actually means that they can increase their emissions and still be on target (due to the fall of the USSR)
▪ No sanctions for if countries miss their emissions targets
99
conflicts over land-ownership (2)
▪ There are borders and islands that remain unclear over who owns them.
▪ This may be because there is untapped energy sources, opportunity for expansion, military strategic importance.
100
Conflicts over intellectual property (3)
▪ difficult to protect due to: increasing counterfeiting and the difficult classification of and individual idea - how different does an invention have to be to be considered ‘new’?
▪ Patenting is important for TNCs, since having a unique selling point is crucial for profits. Large amounts of money are paid in legal fees each year by TNCs trying to stop other companies using their idea
▪ Companies with a patent don't have to share their inventions, which leads to an ethical dilemma - medical companies don't have to release an antidote during a disease outbreak.
101
Conflicts over arctic oil and gas (5)
▪ It is estimates that 30% of the world’s undiscovered gas reserves are in the Arctic which is worth billions of dollars.
▪ As a result, sovereignty over the Arctic is disputed as different countries claim territory within the circle, potentially allowing them claim to the Arctic itself in the future.
▪ Three of the main parties involved have nuclear weapons (Russia, USA, EU). Russia placed a Russian flag on the North pole in 2007 which escalated tension.
▪ Scientific expeditions in the area have increased but these have been seen as controversial.
▪ Russia and Canada have both created Arctic forces to protect their interests and run military exercises.
102
Conflicts over Russia's Western Border (4)
- Russia considers its sphere of influence to be parts of Eastern Europe as most people are
ethnic Russians and the majority of people speak Russian as their first language.
- Many of these countries were formerly part of the USSR. However, some now wish to join the EU which Russia sees as threat to its power.
- increased tensions following the annexation of Crimea by Russia, the EU and USA impose many economic sanction which has damaged the Russian economy.
- NATO deployed more troops across Eastern European nations in case Russia attacked a NATO member state
103
Conflicts between USA and EU and developing nations (3)
- Neo-colonialism – Superpowers pulling the economic and political strings even though they don’t directly rule and control developing nations
- Unfair terms of trade – Cheap commodity exports from developing nations but expensive imports from developed world
- Brain drain - skilled and educated workers go to the core countries which are developed which in turn hinders the growth of developing countries’ economies
104
Describe the global shift
- The world’s economic centre of gravity has slowly shifter from the West and is travelling to the East.
- This is because Asian states are becoming influential players in the global economy, whilst the role of the EU and USA is slowly diminishing
105
Economic challenges for the EU (3)
- Debt in the Eurozone €9.7 trillion in 2016 and £1.6trillion for the UK.
- In 2016, unemployment stood at 10% which was a burden for taxpayers.
- Youth unemployment in the EU was 22% in 2015 and over 45% in Greece and Spain.
106
Demographic challenges for the EU (2)
- The EU’s population is ageing, by 2025 it is estimated that 20% of EU citizens will be over 65.
- After 2035, there is likely to be an overall decline in the population due to low birth rates
107
Political challenges for the EU (3)
- The nations don’t agree on all things and issues.
- Tensions between countries that want a deeper union (Germany and France) and those who want a looser union (UK) have increased.
- Immigration has become a very big political and divisive issue.
108
Resource challenges for the EU
EU’s energy predominantly comes from Russia and as relations between the EU and Russia are not very good right now, there could be energy insecurity for EU nations in the future.
109
Economic challenges for the USA (2)
- National debt in 2016 stood at $19 trillion
- The USA between 2012 and 2014 spent over $900 billion on its military
110
Demographic challenges for the USA
The population is expected to grow from 324 million in 2016 to 415 million in 2060 which can lead to pressures on services and infrastructure.
111
Political challenges for the USA (2)
- There is often political deadlock between democrats and Republicans at state level.
- The election of Trump threatens to undermine previous work by Obama (Arctic Refuge Parks, Climate Change Agreements, Social Acceptance).
112
Resource challenges for the USA
Water insecurity is a major problem especially in the South West. Many droughts affect this area, and an increasing number of illegally used aquifers will further drain water supplies unsustainably.
113
Social challenges for the USA (2)
- Health spending constitutes around 17% of the USA’s annual GDP, this is a very big cost for people and the government.
- 70% of Americans are overweight, with obesity, diabetes and cancer care causing serious health problems or death for the population.
114
How are countries likely to demonstrate their power in the future? (3)
- nuclear weapons as a deterrent (e.g. In 2016, the UK parliament voted in favour of renewing Trident, their nuclear weapons programme, despite it costing from £100-250 billion over 50 years)
- space exploration
- intelligence services
Edexcel A-Level Geography
flashcards
Decks in class (16)
# Cards
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1.1 Tectonic processes and hazards163
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1.1 Case studies29
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1.2 Coastal landscapes and change166
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1.2 Case studies36
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1.3 The water cycle and water insecurity146
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1.3 Case studies38
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1.4 The carbon cycle and energy security139
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1.4 Case studies22
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2.1 Globalisation128
-
2.1 Case studies46
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2.2 Diverse places61
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2.2 Case studies44
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2.3 Superpowers114
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2.3 Case studies9
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2.4 Health, human rights, and intervention82
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2.4 Case studies45
