Neal & Johnson (1996)
Controlling for AFQT test scores shrinks much of the Black–White wage gap, so pre-market skills matter a lot.
Heckman (1998)
AFQT is shaped by earlier disadvantage, so controlling for it does not make discrimination disappear.
Neal (2006)
Shows that skills and education explain much of Black–White wage gaps, but some discrimination remains.
Neal (2023)
Updates that human capital differences still explain many racial gaps in today’s labor market.
Fryer (2022)
Argues modern racial gaps come mainly from skill and opportunity gaps and calls for data-based, talent-building DEI.
Roth, Huffcutt & Bobko (2003)
Find small racial gaps in job performance, larger on more cognitive tasks, pointing to real skill differences.
McKay & McDaniel (2006)
Estimate about a 0.27 SD job performance gap favoring whites, especially in complex jobs.
Bertrand & Mullainathan (2004)
Identical résumés with white-sounding names get more callbacks than Black-sounding names, showing hiring bias.
Torrellano-Bover (2021)
Some interned Japanese Americans later moved into better jobs than similar non-interned people due to reshuffling.
Walter Williams interview (1988)
Says groups like Jews and Japanese Americans got rich before gaining political power, so politics is not required first.
Sowell (2005)
Claims modern Black underclass culture partly comes from an older Southern white ‘redneck’ culture.
